# Chapter 5. Math, Physics, and Animation

Impressing users with animation involves more than knowing how to move objects—you also need to know how to move them in ways that users expect. That requires understanding some common algorithms for math-based movement and physics interactions. Simple movement based on points and vectors provides a foundation, and then it’s time to create objects that bounce off walls and one another with a bit of friction added to the mix. After that, we will step back and talk about movement that goes beyond straight lines: circles, spirals, and complex Bezier curves. We will then cover how adding gravity can affect movement. Finally, we will finish this chapter by discussing easing and how it can have a positive effect on math-based animations.

## Moving in a Straight Line

The simplest kinds of animations—moving objects in a straight line up and down the canvas—can take the form of adding a constant value to the x or y position of an object every time it is drawn.

So, to animate graphics, we will need to create an interval and then call a function that will display our updated graphics on every frame. Each example in this chapter will be built in a similar way. The first step is to set up the necessary variables in our canvasApp() function. For this first, basic example of movement, we will create a variable named speed. We will apply this value to the y position of our object on every call to drawScreen(). The x and y variables set up the initial position of the object (a filled circle) that we will move down the canvas:

var speed = 5;
var y = 10;
var x = 250;

After we create the variables, we set up an interval to call the drawScreen() function every 20 milliseconds. This is the loop we need to update our objects and move them around the canvas:

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

In the drawScreen() function, we update the value of y by adding to it the value of the speed variable:

y += speed;

Finally, we draw our circle on the canvas. We position it using the current values of x and y. Because y is updated every time the function is called, the circle effectively moves down the canvas:

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(x,y,15,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

To move the circle up the screen, we would make speed a negative number. To move it left or right, we would update the x instead of the y variable. To move the circle diagonally, we would update both x and y at the same time.

Example 5-1 shows the complete code needed to create basic movement in a straight line.

Example 5-1. Moving in a straight line
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX1: Moving In A Straight Line</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();

}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

// Create ball

y += speed;

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(x,y,15,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

}

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

var speed = 5;
var y = 10;
var x = 250;

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>

</body>
</html>

The basic structure of the HTML for all the examples in this chapter will follow these rules. In the interest of saving space, we will refrain from discussing this code further, but it will appear in the examples provided.

### Moving Between Two Points: The Distance of a Line

Movement based on constant changes to the x or y position of an object works well for some applications, but at other times you will need to be more precise. One such instance is when you need to move an object from point A to point B at a constant rate of speed.

In mathematics, a common way to find the length of an unknown oline is to use the Pythagorean theorem:

 A2 + B2 = C2

In this equation, C is the unknown side of a triangle when A and B are already known. However, we need to translate this equation into something that we can use with the points and pixels we have available on the canvas.

This is a good example of using a mathematical equation in your application. In this case, we want to find the distance of a line, given two points. In English, this equation reads like this:

The distance equals the square root of the square of the difference between the x value of the second point minus the x value of the first point, plus the square of the difference between the y value of the second point minus the y value of the first point.

You can see this in Figure 5-1. It’s much easier to understand in this format.

In the second example, we need to create some new variables in the canvasApp() function. We will still use a speed variable, just like in the first example, but this time we set it to 5, which means it will move 5 pixels on every call to drawScreen():

var speed = 5;

We then create a couple of dynamic objects—each with an x and a y property—that will represent the two points we want to move between. For this example, we will move our circle from 20,250 to 480,250:

var p1 = {x:20,y:250};
var p2 = {x:480,y:250};

Now it is time to re-create the distance equation in Figure 5-1. The first step is to calculate the differences between the second and first x and y points:

var dx = p2.x - p1.x;
var dy = p2.y - p1.y;

To determine the distance value, we square both the values we just created, add them, and then use the Math.sqrt()function to get the square root of the number:

var distance = Math.sqrt(dx*dx + dy*dy);

Next, we need to use that calculated distance value in a way that will allow us to move an object a uniform number of pixels from p1 to p2. The first thing we do is calculate how many moves (calls to drawScreen()) it will take the object to move at the given value of speed. We get this by dividing the distance by the speed:

var moves = distance/speed;

Then we find the distance to move both x and y on each call to drawScreen(). We name these variables xunits and yunits:

var xunits = (p2.x - p1.x)/moves;
var yunits = (p2.y - p1.y)/moves;

Finally, we create a dynamic object named ball that holds the x and y value of p1:

var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y};

And create the interval to call drawScreen() every 33 milliseconds:

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

#### Drawing the ball

Let’s draw the ball on the screen. In the drawScreen() function, we first check to see whether the moves variable is greater than zero. If so, we are still supposed to move the ball across the screen because we have not yet reached p2. We decrement moves (moves--) and then update the x and y properties of the ball object by adding the xunits to x and yunits to y:

if (moves > 0 ) {
moves--;
ball.x += xunits;
ball.y += yunits;
}

Now that our values have been updated, we simply draw the ball at the x and y coordinates specified by the x and y properties, and we are done—that is, until drawScreen() is called 33 milliseconds later:

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,15,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

Let’s try the example by executing it in a web browser. You can find it in the code distribution as CH5EX2.html, or you can type in Example 5-2. Watch the ball move from one point to another. If you update the x and y values of each point, or change the speed, watch the results. You can do a lot with this very simple example.

#### Tracing movement: A path of points

For many of the examples in this chapter, we will create a way to trace an object’s movement on the canvas by drawing points to show its path. We have done this to help illustrate how objects move. However, in the real world, you would need to remove this functionality so that your application will perform to its potential. This is the only place we will discuss this code, so if you see it listed in any of the later examples in this chapter, refer back to this section to refresh your memory on its functionality.

First, we create an array in canvasApp() to hold the set of points we will draw on the canvas:

var points = new Array();

Next, we load a black 4×4 pixel image, point.png, which we will use to display the points on the canvas:

var pointImage = new Image();
pointImage.src = "point.png";

Whenever we calculate a point for an object we will move, we push that point into the points array:

points.push({x:ball.x,y:ball.y});

On each call to drawScreen(), we draw the set of points we have put into the points array. Remember, we have to redraw every point each time because the canvas is an immediate-mode display surface that does not retain any information about the images drawn onto it:

for (var i = 0; i< points.length; i++) {
context.drawImage(pointImage, points[i].x, points[i].y,1,1);
}

In Figure 5-2, you can see what the ball looks like when moving on a line from one point to another and also what the points path looks like when it is drawn.

This is the only time in this chapter where we will discuss the points path in depth. If you see the points being drawn, you will know how and why we have added that functionality. You should also have enough information to remove the code when necessary.

Example 5-2 is the full code listing for CH5EX2.html.

Example 5-2. Moving on a simple line
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX2: Moving On A Simple Line</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();

}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

var pointImage = new Image();
pointImage.src = "point.png";

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

// Create ball

if (moves > 0 ) {
moves--;
ball.x += xunits;
ball.y += yunits;
}

//Draw points to illustrate path

points.push({x:ball.x,y:ball.y});

for (var i = 0; i< points.length; i++) {
context.drawImage(pointImage, points[i].x, points[i].y,1,1);

}

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,15,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

}
var speed = 5;
var p1 = {x:20,y:250};
var p2 = {x:480,y:250};
var dx = p2.x - p1.x;
var dy = p2.y - p1.y;
var distance = Math.sqrt(dx*dx + dy*dy);
var moves = distance/speed;
var xunits = (p2.x - p1.x)/moves;
var yunits = (p2.y - p1.y)/moves;
var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y};
var points = new Array();

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

### Moving on a Vector

Moving between two points is handy, but sometimes you don’t have a point to move to, only a point to start from. In cases like this, it can be very useful to create a vector as a means to move your object.

A vector is a quantity in physics that has both magnitude and direction. For our purposes, the magnitude will be the speed value of the moving object, and the direction will be an angle value that the object will move upon.

The good news is that moving on a vector is very similar to moving between two points. In canvasApp(), we first set our speed value (magnitude). This is the number of pixels the object will move on every call to drawScreen(). We will set this to 5. We will also set the starting point (p1) for the object to 20,20:

var speed = 5;
var p1 = {x:20,y:20};

Now, we will set the angle value (direction) of movement for our object to 45 degrees. In mathematics, a flat, straight line usually represents the 0 angle, which means a vector with an angle of 45 degrees would be down and to the right on the canvas.

With our angle set, we now need to convert it to radians. Radians are a standard unit of angle measurement, and most mathematical calculations require you to convert an angle into radians before you can use it.

So why not just use radians and forget degrees altogether? Because it is much easier to understand movement in degrees when working with vectors and moving objects on a 2D surface. While a circle has 360 degrees, it has just about 6 radians, which are calculated counterclockwise. This might make perfect sense to mathematicians, but to move objects on a computer screen, angles are much easier. Therefore, we will work with angles, but we still need to convert our 45-degree angle into radians. We do that with a standard formula: radians = angle * Math.PI/ 180. And in the code:

var angle = 45;
var radians = angle * Math.PI/ 180;

Before we can discuss how we calculate the movement of our object along our vector, we need to review a couple trigonometric concepts. These are cosine and sine, and both relate to the arc created by our angle (now converted to radians), if it was drawn outward from the center of the circle.

cosine

The angle measured counterclockwise from the x-axis (x)

sine

The vertical coordinate of the arc endpoint (y)

You can see how these values relate to a 45-degree angle in Figure 5-3.

This might seem complicated, but there is a very simple way to think about it: cosine usually deals with the x value, and sine usually deals with the y value. We can use sine and cosine to help us calculate movement along our vector.

To calculate the number of pixels to move our object on each call to drawScreen() (xunits and yunits), we use the radians (direction) we calculated and speed (magnitude), along with the Math.cos() (cosine) and Math.sin() (sine) functions of the JavaScript Math object:

var xunits = Math.cos(radians) * speed;
var yunits = Math.sin(radians) * speed;

In drawScreen(), we simply add xunits and yunits to ball.x and ball.y:

ball.x += xunits;
ball.y += yunits;

We don’t check to see whether moves has been exhausted because we are not moving to a particular point—we are simply moving along the vector, seemingly forever. In the next section, we will explore what we can do if we want the moving object to change direction when it hits something, such as a wall.

Figure 5-4 shows what Example 5-3 looks like when it is executed in a web browser. Recall that the points are drawn for illustration only.

Example 5-3 gives the full code listing.

Example 5-3. Moving on a vector
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX3: Moving On A Vector</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();
}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

var pointImage = new Image();
pointImage.src = "point.png";

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

ball.x += xunits;
ball.y += yunits;

//Draw points to illustrate path

points.push({x:ball.x,y:ball.y});

for (var i = 0; i< points.length; i++) {
context.drawImage(pointImage, points[i].x, points[i].y,1,1);
}

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,15,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

}   var speed = 5;
var p1 = {x:20,y:20};
var angle = 45;
var radians = angle * Math.PI/ 180;
var xunits = Math.cos(radians) * speed;
var yunits = Math.sin(radians) * speed;
var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y};
var points = new Array();

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

## Bouncing Off Walls

While it’s neat that we can create a vector with magnitude and direction and then move an object along it infinitely, it’s probably not something you will need to do all that often. Most of the time, you will want to see that object react to the world around it by bouncing off horizontal and vertical walls, for example.

To help you understand how to do this, there is a simple rule in physics. Although this rule is usually applied to rays of light, it can be very useful when animating 2D objects—especially when they are bouncing off horizontal and vertical walls. This rule is known as the angle of reflection:

The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

The angle of incidence is the angle an object is traveling when it hits the walls, and the angle of reflection is the angle it travels after it bounces off the wall.

Figure 5-5 illustrates that when an object hits a wall on a line that forms a 45-degree angle with a perpendicular line drawn to the point of impact, it will bounce off (reflect) at a similar 45-degree angle.

In the next section, we will create a series of examples using this rule to animate objects. The first, Example 5-4, will simply allow a single ball to bounce off the edges of the canvas.

### Bouncing a Single Ball

In this first example, we will create a ball traveling on a vector. We will set the speed (magnitude) to 5 and the angle (direction) to 35 degrees. The rest of the variables are identical to those in Example 5-3. We are still moving on a vector, but now we will test to see whether the ball hits a “wall” (the edges of the canvas), in which case it will bounce off, using the rule of the angle of reflection. One big change from the previous vector example is the location in which we initialize the values for radians, xunits, and yunits. Instead of setting them up when we initialize the application in canvasApp(), we save that for a call to a new function named updateBall():

var speed = 5;
var p1 = {x:20,y:20};
var angle = 35;
var radians = 0;
var xunits = 0;
var yunits = 0;
var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y};
updateBall();

The updateBall() function is called every time we set a new angle for the ball, because we need to recalculate the radians and find new values for xunits and yunits. A new angle value is generated when the app starts, as well as every time the ball bounces off a wall:

function updateBall() {
radians = angle * Math.PI/ 180;
xunits = Math.cos(radians) * speed;
yunits = Math.sin(radians) * speed;
}

In drawScreen(), we update the position of the ball and then draw it on the canvas:

ball.x += xunits;
ball.y += yunits;
context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,15,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

Next, we test to see whether the ball has hit a wall before we draw it to the canvas. If the ball hits the right side (ball.x > theCanvas.width) or the left side (ball.x < 0) of the canvas, we set the angle to 180 degrees minus the angle of the vector on which the ball is traveling. This gives us the angle of reflection. Alternatively, if the ball hits the top (ball.y < 0) or bottom (ball.y > theCanvas.height) of the canvas, we calculate the angle of reflection as 360 degrees minus the angle of the vector on which the ball is traveling:

if (ball.x > theCanvas.width || ball.x < 0 ) {
angle = 180 - angle;
updateBall();
} else if (ball.y > theCanvas.height || ball.y < 0) {
angle = 360 - angle;
updateBall();
}

That’s it. Example 5-4 demonstrates a ball that bounces off walls using the rules of physics. Figure 5-6 illustrates the code.

Example 5-4. Ball bounce
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX4: Ball Bounce</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();
}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

function  drawScreen () {
context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);
ball.x += xunits;
ball.y += yunits;
context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,15,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

if (ball.x > theCanvas.width || ball.x < 0 ) {
angle = 180 - angle;
updateBall();
} else if (ball.y > theCanvas.height || ball.y < 0) {
angle = 360 - angle;
updateBall();
}

}

function updateBall() {
radians = angle * Math.PI/ 180;
xunits = Math.cos(radians) * speed;
yunits = Math.sin(radians) * speed;
}

var speed = 5;
var p1 = {x:20,y:20};
var angle = 35;
var radians = 0;
var xunits = 0;
var yunits = 0;
var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y};
updateBall();

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}
</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

The points on the line are not drawn when executed in the web browser because they slow down the ball far too much. We left them in Figure 5-6 to illustrate the angles of incidence and reflection.

### Multiple Balls Bouncing Off Walls

One ball is cool, but what about 100? Is the code 100 times more complicated? No, not at all. In fact, the code is only slightly more complicated, but it is also more refined. Most programming tasks that require only a single object of a type tend to allow you to be a bit lazy. However, when you need to build an application that must support n number of objects, you need to make sure the code will work in many different cases.

In the case of 100 balls bouncing on the canvas, we will need to create a ball object with a few more properties. Recall that the ball object we created previously had only x and y properties and looked like this:

var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y};

All the other variables that represented the ball (speed, angle, xunits, yunits) were global in scope to the canvasApp(). We used global variables because we could get away with it. However, because we need to make sure everything works the same way in this app, we make all those values properties of each ball object.

For the multiple-ball-bounce application, we will create an object that holds all the pertinent information about each bouncing ball: x, y, speed, angle, xunits, and yunits. Because we are going to create 100 balls of various sizes, we also add a property named radius, which represents the size of the ball (well, half the size because it is a radius):

tempBall = {x:tempX,y:tempY,radius:tempRadius, speed:tempSpeed,
angle:tempAngle, xunits:tempXunits, yunits:tempYunits}

Inside canvasApp(), we define some new variables to help manage the multiple balls that will bounce around the canvas:

numBalls

The number of balls to randomly create

maxSize

The maximum radius length for any given ball

minSize

The minimum radius length for any given ball

maxSpeed

The maximum speed any ball can travel

balls

An array to hold all of the ball objects we will create

The following code shows the newly defined variables:

var numBalls = 100 ;
var maxSize = 8;
var minSize = 5;
var maxSpeed = maxSize+5;
var balls = new Array();

We also create a set of temporary variables to hold the values for each ball before we push it into the balls array:

var tempBall;
var tempX;
var tempY;
var tempSpeed;
var tempAngle;
var tempRadius;
var tempRadians;
var tempXunits;
var tempYunits;

Next, in canvasApp(), we iterate through a loop to create all the ball objects. Notice how tempX and tempY are created below. These values represent the ball’s starting location on the canvas. We create a random value for each, but we offset it by the size of the ball (tempRadius*2). If we did not do that, some of the balls would get “stuck” in a wall when the app starts because their x or y location would be “through” the wall, but their speed would not be enough so that a “bounce” would get them back on the playfield. They would be stuck in bouncing limbo forever (which is kind of sad when you think about it).

When you try this app, you will see that occasionally a ball still gets stuck in a wall. There is a further optimization we need to make to prevent this, but it is a bigger subject than this little iteration. We will talk about it in the section “Multiple Balls Bouncing and Colliding”.

The tempSpeed variable is created by subtracting the value of tempRadius from the value of maxSpeed, which we created earlier. The speed is not random, but it is inversely proportional to the size (radius) of the ball. A larger ball has a larger radius, so the value you subtract from tempSpeed will be larger, thus making the ball move more slowly.

When you run CH5EX5.html in your web browser, you will notice that this little trick makes the ball appear more “real” because your brain expects larger objects to move more slowly.

for (var i = 0; i < numBalls; i++) {
tempRadius = Math.floor(Math.random()*maxSize)+minSize;
tempX = tempRadius*2 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.width)
-tempRadius*2);
tempY = tempRadius*2 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.height)
-tempRadius*2);
tempSpeed = maxSpeed-tempRadius;
tempAngle = Math.floor(Math.random()*360);
tempRadians = tempAngle * Math.PI/ 180;
tempXunits = Math.cos(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;
tempYunits = Math.sin(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;

tempBall = {x:tempX,y:tempY,radius:tempRadius, speed:tempSpeed,
angle:tempAngle,
xunits:tempXunits, yunits:tempYunits}
balls.push(tempBall);
}

Now we need to draw the balls onto the canvas. Inside drawScreen(), the code to draw the balls should look very familiar because it is essentially the same code we used for one ball in Example 5-4. We just need to loop through the balls array to render each ball object:

for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
ball.x += ball.xunits;
ball.y += ball.yunits;

context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,ball.radius,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

if (ball.x > theCanvas.width || ball.x < 0 ) {
ball.angle = 180 - ball.angle;
updateBall(ball);
} else if (ball.y > theCanvas.height || ball.y < 0) {
ball.angle = 360 - ball.angle;
updateBall(ball);
}
}

When you load Example 5-5 in your web browser, you will see a bunch of balls all moving around the screen independently, as shown in Figure 5-7. For the fun of it, why not change the numBalls variable to 500 or 1,000? What does the canvas look like then?

Example 5-5. Multiple ball bounce
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX5: Multiple Ball Bounce</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();
}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {   if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);

//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

//Place balls
context.fillStyle = "#000000";
var ball;

for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
ball.x += ball.xunits;
ball.y += ball.yunits;

context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,ball.radius,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

if (ball.x > theCanvas.width || ball.x < 0 ) {
ball.angle = 180 - ball.angle;
updateBall(ball);
} else if (ball.y > theCanvas.height || ball.y < 0) {
ball.angle = 360 - ball.angle;
updateBall(ball);
}
}

}

function updateBall(ball) {

ball.radians = ball.angle * Math.PI/ 180;
ball.xunits = Math.cos(ball.radians) * ball.speed;
ball.yunits = Math.sin(ball.radians) * ball.speed;

}

var numBalls = 100 ;
var maxSize = 8;
var minSize = 5;
var maxSpeed = maxSize+5;
var balls = new Array();
var tempBall;
var tempX;
var tempY;
var tempSpeed;
var tempAngle;
var tempRadius;
var tempRadians;
var tempXunits;
var tempYunits;

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

for (var i = 0; i < numBalls; i++) {
tempRadius = Math.floor(Math.random()*maxSize)+minSize;
tempX = tempRadius*2 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.width)-tempRadius*2);
tempY = tempRadius*2 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.height)-tempRadius*2);
tempSpeed = maxSpeed-tempRadius;
tempAngle = Math.floor(Math.random()*360);
tempRadians = tempAngle * Math.PI/ 180;
tempXunits = Math.cos(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;
tempYunits = Math.sin(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;

tempBall = {x:tempX,y:tempY,radius:tempRadius, speed:tempSpeed, angle:tempAngle,
xunits:tempXunits, yunits:tempYunits}
balls.push(tempBall);
}

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

### Multiple Balls Bouncing with a Dynamically Resized Canvas

Before we move on to more complex interaction among balls, let’s try one more thing. Back in Chapter 3, we resized the canvas with some HTML5 form controls to display text in the center of the canvas. Well, let’s do the same thing now with the ball example. This will give you a better idea of how we can make objects interact with a dynamically resizing canvas.

First, in the HTML, we create two HTML5 range controls, one for width and one for height, and set their maximum values to 1000. We will use these controls to set the width and height of the canvas at runtime:

<form>

Canvas Width:  <input type="range" id="canvasWidth"
min="0"
max="1000"
step="1"
value="500"/>
<br>
Canvas Height:  <input type="range" id="canvasHeight"
min="0"
max="1000"
step="1"
value="500"/>
<br>

</form>

In canvasApp(), we create the event listeners for the HTML5 form controls. We listen for the change event, which means that any time the range control is moved, the event handlers will be called:

formElement = document.getElementById("canvasWidth")
formElement.addEventListener('change', canvasWidthChanged, false);

formElement = document.getElementById("canvasHeight")
formElement.addEventListener('change', canvasHeightChanged, false);

The event handler functions capture the changes to the range, set theCanvas.width or theCanvas.height, and then call drawScreen() to render the new size. Without a call to drawScreen() here, the canvas will blink when the new size is applied in drawScreen() on the next interval:

function canvasWidthChanged(e) {
var target = e.target;
theCanvas.width = target.value;
drawScreen();
}

function canvasHeightChanged(e) {
var target = e.target;
theCanvas.height = target.value;
drawScreen();
}

All of this is explained in gory detail in Chapter 3.

One last thing—let’s increase the number of balls set in canvasApp() to 500:

var numBalls = 500 ;

Now, check out Example 5-6 (CH5EX6.html from the code distribution). When you run the code in a web browser, you should see 500 balls bounce around the canvas, as shown in Figure 5-8. When you increase the width or height using the range controls, they continue moving until they hit the new edge of the canvas. If you make the canvas smaller, the balls will be contained within the smaller space. If you adjust the size too rapidly, some balls will be lost off the canvas, but they will reappear when the canvas is resized. Neat, huh?

Example 5-6. Multiple ball bounce with dynamically resized canvas
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX6: Multiple Ball Bounce With Resize</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();
}function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

formElement = document.getElementById("canvasWidth")
formElement.addEventListener('change', canvasWidthChanged, false);

formElement = document.getElementById("canvasHeight")
formElement.addEventListener('change', canvasHeightChanged, false);

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

//Place balls
context.fillStyle = "#000000";
var ball;

for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
ball.x += ball.xunits;
ball.y += ball.yunits;

context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,ball.radius,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

if (ball.x > theCanvas.width || ball.x < 0 ) {
ball.angle = 180 - ball.angle;
updateBall(ball);
} else if (ball.y > theCanvas.height || ball.y < 0) {
ball.angle = 360 - ball.angle;
updateBall(ball);
}
}

}

function updateBall(ball) {

ball.radians = ball.angle * Math.PI/ 180;
ball.xunits = Math.cos(ball.radians) * ball.speed;
ball.yunits = Math.sin(ball.radians) * ball.speed;

}

var numBalls = 500 ;
var maxSize = 8;
var minSize = 5;
var maxSpeed = maxSize+5;
var balls = new Array();
var tempBall;
var tempX;
var tempY;
var tempSpeed;
var tempAngle;
var tempRadius;
var tempRadians;
var tempXunits;
var tempYunits;

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

for (var i = 0; i < numBalls; i++) {
tempRadius = Math.floor(Math.random()*maxSize)+minSize;
tempX = tempRadius*2 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.width)-tempRadius*2);
tempY = tempRadius*2 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.height)-tempRadius*2);
tempSpeed = maxSpeed-tempRadius;
tempAngle = Math.floor(Math.random()*360);
tempRadians = tempAngle * Math.PI/ 180;
tempXunits = Math.cos(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;
tempYunits = Math.sin(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;

tempBall = {x:tempX,y:tempY,radius:tempRadius, speed:tempSpeed, angle:tempAngle,
xunits:tempXunits, yunits:tempYunits}
balls.push(tempBall);
}

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

function canvasWidthChanged(e) {
var target = e.target;
theCanvas.width = target.value;
drawScreen();
}

function canvasHeightChanged(e) {
var target = e.target;
theCanvas.height = target.value;
drawScreen();
}

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
<form>

Canvas Width:  <input type="range" id="canvasWidth"
min="0"
max="1000"
step="1"
value="500"/>
<br>
Canvas Height:  <input type="range" id="canvasHeight"
min="0"
max="1000"
step="1"
value="500"/>
<br>

</form>
</div>
</body>
</html>

### Multiple Balls Bouncing and Colliding

Now it’s time to step it up again. Testing balls bouncing off walls is one thing, but what about balls bouncing off one another? We will need to add some pretty intricate code to handle this type of interaction.

#### Ball interactions in physics

For this example, we are going to create an elastic collision, which means that the total kinetic energy of the objects is the same before and after the collision. This is known as the law of conservation of momentum (Newton’s third law). To do this, we will take the x and y velocities of two colliding balls, and draw a “line of action” between their centers. This is illustrated in Figure 5-9, which has been adapted from Jobe Makar and Ben Winiarczyk’s Macromedia’s Flash MX 2004 Game Design Demystified (Macromedia Press). Then we will create new x and y velocities for each ball based on this angle and the law of conservation of momentum.

To properly calculate conservation of momentum when balls collide on the canvas, we need to add a new property: mass. Mass is the measurement of how much a ball (or any object) resists any change in its velocity. Because collisions tend to change the velocity of objects, this is an important addition to the ball objects we will use on the canvas.

#### Making sure the balls don’t start on top of each other

We will work from the code we created for Example 5-6 (CH5EX6.html). The first big change to that code is to make sure the balls don’t randomly start on top of one another. If we let them start in the same location, they would be forever intertwined and would spin off into oblivion. To be honest, it looks pretty cool when that happens, but that’s not the result we are looking to achieve.

In canvasApp(), we set a variable named tempRadius to 5. We will use this value as the radius for each ball we create. Next, we create another new variable named placeOK and set it to false. When this is equal to true, we know we have found a place to put a ball that is not on top of another ball.

Next, we enter a while() loop that will continue to iterate as long as placeOK is false. Then, we set all the values for our new ball object:

tempRadius = 5;
var placeOK = false;
while (!placeOK) {
tempX = tempRadius*3 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.width)-tempRadius*3);
tempY = tempRadius*3 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.height)-tempRadius*3);
tempSpeed = 4;
tempAngle = Math.floor(Math.random()*360);
tempRadians = tempAngle * Math.PI/ 180;
tempvelocityx = Math.cos(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;
tempvelocityy = Math.sin(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;

Now, we need to make a dynamic object out of the values we just created and place that object into the tempBall variable. This is where we create a mass property for each ball. Again, we do this so that we can calculate the effect when the balls hit one another. For all the balls in this example, the mass will be the same—the value of tempRadius. We do this because, in our 2D environment, the relative size of each ball is a very simple way to create a value for mass. Because the mass and speed of each ball will be the same, they will affect each other in a similar way. Later we will show you what happens when we create ball objects with different mass values.

Finally, we create nextX and nextY properties that are equal to x and y. We will use these values as “look ahead” properties to help alleviate collisions that occur “between” our iterations, which lead to overlapping balls and other oddities:

tempBall = {x:tempX,y:tempY, nextX: tempX, nextY: tempY, radius:tempRadius,
speed:tempSpeed, angle:tempAngle, velocityx:tempvelocityx,
velocityy:tempvelocityy, mass:tempRadius};

Now that we have our new dynamic ball object represented by the tempBall variable, we will test to see whether it can be placed at the tempX and tempY we randomly created for it. We will do this with a call to a new function named canStartHere(). If canStartHere() returns true, we drop out of the while() loop; if not, we start all over again:

         placeOK = canStartHere(tempBall);
}

The canStartHere() function is very simple. It looks through the ball array, testing the new tempBall against all existing balls to see whether they overlap. If they do, the function returns false; if not, it returns true. To test the overlap, we have created another new function: hitTestCircle():

function canStartHere(ball) {
var retval = true;
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
if (hitTestCircle(ball, balls[i])) {
retval = false;
}
}
return retval;
}

#### Circle collision detection

The hitTestCircle() function performs a circle/circle collision-detection test to see whether the two circles (each representing a ball) passed as parameters to the function are touching. Because we have been tracking the balls by the center x and y of their location, this is quite easy to calculate. First, the function finds the distance of the line that connects the center of each circle. We do this using our old friend the Pythagorean theorem (A2+B2 = C2). We use the nextx and nexty properties of the ball because we want to test the collision before it occurs. (Again, if we test after by using the current x and y locations, there is a good chance the balls will get stuck together and spin out of control.) We then compare that distance value to the sum of the radius of each ball. If the distance is less than or equal to the sum of the radii, we have a collision. This is a very simple and efficient way to test collisions, and it works especially well with collisions among balls in 2D:

function hitTestCircle(ball1,ball2) {
var retval = false;
var dx = ball1.nextx - ball2.nextx;
var dy = ball1.nexty - ball2.nexty;
var distance = (dx * dx + dy * dy);
if (distance <= (ball1.radius + ball2.radius) *
(ball1.radius + ball2.radius) ) {
retval = true;
}
return retval;
}

Figure 5-10 illustrates this code.

#### Separating the code in drawScreen()

The next thing we want to do is simplify drawScreen() by separating the code into controllable functions. The idea here is that to test collisions correctly, we need to make sure some of our calculations are done in a particular order. We like to call this an update-collide-render cycle.

update()

Sets the nextx and nexty properties of all the balls in the balls array.

testWalls()

Tests to see whether the balls have hit one of the walls.

collide()

Tests collisions among balls. If the balls collide, updates nextx and nexty.

render()

Makes the x and y properties for each ball equal to nextx and nexty, respectively, and then draws them to the canvas.

And here is the code:

function  drawScreen () {

update();
testWalls();
collide();
render();

}

#### Updating positions of objects

The update() function loops through all the balls in the balls array and updates the nextx and nexty properties with the x and y velocity for each ball. We don’t directly update x and y here, because we want to test collisions against walls and other balls before they occur. We will use the nextx and nexty properties for this purpose:

function update() {
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
ball.nextx = (ball.x += ball.velocityx);
ball.nexty = (ball.y += ball.velocityy);
}
}

#### Better interaction with the walls

We discussed the interactions between balls and walls in the last example, but there is still one issue. Because we move the balls by the x and y location of their center, the balls would move halfway off the canvas before a bounce occurred. To fix this, we add or subtract the radius of the ball object, depending on which walls we are testing. For the right side and bottom of the canvas, we add the radius of the ball when we test the walls. In this way, the ball will appear to bounce exactly when its edge hits a wall. Similarly, we subtract the radius when we test the left side and the top of the canvas so that the ball does not move off the side before we make it bounce off a wall:

function testWalls() {
var ball;
var testBall;

for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];

if (ball.nextx+ball.radius > theCanvas.width) {
ball.velocityx = ball.velocityx*−1;
ball.nextx = theCanvas.width - ball.radius;         }
else if (ball.nextx-ball.radius < 0 ) {
ball.velocityx = ball.velocityx*−1;
ball.nextx = ball.radius;

} else if (ball.nexty+ball.radius > theCanvas.height ) {
ball.velocityy = ball.velocityy*−1;
ball.nexty = theCanvas.height - ball.radius;

} else if(ball.nexty-ball.radius < 0) {
ball.velocityy = ball.velocityy*−1;
ball.nexty = ball.radius;
}
}
}

#### Collisions with balls

The collide() function tests to see whether any balls have hit another. This function uses two nested loops, both iterating through the balls array to ensure that we test each ball against every other ball. We take the ball from the first loop of the balls array and place it into the ball variable. Then we loop through balls again, placing each ball in the testBall variable, one at a time. When we have both ball and testBall, we make sure that they are not equal to one another. We do this because a ball will always have a false positive collision if we test it against itself. When we are sure that they are not the same ball, we call hitTestCircle() to test for a collision. If we find one, we call collideBalls(), and then all heck breaks loose. (OK, not really, but the balls do collide, and some really interesting code gets executed.) See that code here:

function collide() {
var ball;
var testBall;
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
for (var j = i+1; j < balls.length; j++) {
testBall = balls[j];
if (hitTestCircle(ball,testBall)) {
collideBalls(ball,testBall);
}
}
}
}

#### Ball collisions in depth

So now we get to the most interesting code of this example. We are going to update the properties of each ball so that they appear to bounce off one another. Recall that we use the nextx and nexty properties because we want to make sure to test where the balls will be after they are drawn—not where they are right now. This helps keep the balls from overlapping in a way that will make them stick together.

Sometimes the balls will still stick together. This is a common problem when creating collisions among balls. This happens when balls overlap one another before the collision test, and the reaction bounce is not enough to split them apart completely. We have made every attempt to optimize this function for the canvas, but we are sure further optimizations are possible.

The collideBalls() function takes two parameters: ball1 and ball2. Both parameters are the ball objects that we want to make collide:

function collideBalls(ball1,ball2) {

First, we need to calculate the difference between the center points of each ball. We store this as dx and dy (difference x and difference y). This should look familiar because we did something similar when we tested for a collision between the balls. The difference is that now we know they have collided, and we want to know how that collision occurred:

var dx = ball1.nextx - ball2.nextx;
var dy = ball1.nexty - ball2.nexty;

To do this, we need to find the angle of the collision using the Math.atan2() function. This function gives us the angle in radians of the collisions between the two balls. This is the line of action or angle of collision. We need this value so that we can determine how the balls will react when they collide:

var collisionAngle = Math.atan2(dy, dx);

Next we calculate the velocity vector for each ball given the x and y velocities that existed before the collision occurred:

var speed1 = Math.sqrt(ball1.velocityx * ball1.velocityx +
ball1.velocityy *   ball1.velocityy);
var speed2 = Math.sqrt(ball2.velocityx * ball2.velocityx +
ball2.velocityy * ball2.velocityy);

Then, we calculate angles (in radians) for each ball given its current velocities:

var direction1 = Math.atan2(ball1.velocityy, ball1.velocityx);
var direction2 = Math.atan2(ball2.velocityy, ball2.velocityx);

Next we need to rotate the vectors counterclockwise so that we can plug those values into the equation for conservation of momentum. Basically, we are taking the angle of collision and making it flat so that we can bounce the balls, similar to how we bounced balls off the sides of the canvas:

var velocityx_1 = speed1 * Math.cos(direction1 - collisionAngle);
var velocityy_1 = speed1 * Math.sin(direction1 - collisionAngle);
var velocityx_2 = speed2 * Math.cos(direction2 - collisionAngle);
var velocityy_2 = speed2 * Math.sin(direction2 - collisionAngle);

We take the mass values of each ball and update their x and y velocities based on the law of conservation of momentum. To find the final velocity for both balls, we use the following formulas:

velocity1 = ((mass1 - mass2) * velocity1 + 2*mass2 * velocity2) / mass1 + mass2
velocity2 = ((mass2 - mass1) * velocity2 + 2*mass1 * velocity1)/ mass1+ mass2

Actually, only the x velocity needs to be updated; the y velocity remains constant:

var final_velocityx_1 = ((ball1.mass - ball2.mass) * velocityx_1 +
(ball2.mass + ball2.mass) * velocityx_2)/(ball1.mass + ball2.mass);
var final_velocityx_2 = ((ball1.mass + ball1.mass) * velocityx_1 +
(ball2.mass - ball1.mass) * velocityx_2)/(ball1.mass + ball2.mass);

var final_velocityy_1 = velocityy_1;
var final_velocityy_2 = velocityy_2

After we have our final velocities, we rotate our angles back again so that the collision angle is preserved:

ball1.velocityx = Math.cos(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_1 +
Math.cos(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_1;
ball1.velocityy = Math.sin(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_1 +
Math.sin(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_1;
ball2.velocityx = Math.cos(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_2 +
Math.cos(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_2;
ball2.velocityy = Math.sin(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_2 +
Math.sin(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_2;

Now we update nextx and nexty for both balls so that we can use those values in the render() function—or for another collision:

   ball1.nextx = (ball1.nextx += ball1.velocityx);
ball1.nexty = (ball1.nexty += ball1.velocityy);
ball2.nextx = (ball2.nextx += ball2.velocityx);
ball2.nexty = (ball2.nexty += ball2.velocityy);
}

If this is confusing to you, you are not alone. It took some serious effort for us to translate this code from other sources into a working example on HTML5 Canvas. The code here is based on Flash Lite Effort: Embedded Systems and Pervasive Computing Lab by Felipe Sampaio. It is also partly based on Jobe Makar and Ben Winiarczyk’s work in Macromedia Flash MX 2004 Game Design Demystified, and Keith Peters’ books on ActionScript animation.

Here is the full code listing for Example 5-7.

Example 5-7. Balls with simple interactions
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX7: Balls With Simple Interactions</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();

}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

update();
testWalls();
collide();
render();

}

function update() {
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
ball.nextx = (ball.x += ball.velocityx);
ball.nexty = (ball.y += ball.velocityy);
}

}

function testWalls() {
var ball;
var testBall;

for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];

if (ball.nextx+ball.radius > theCanvas.width) {
ball.velocityx = ball.velocityx*-1;
ball.nextx = theCanvas.width - ball.radius;

} else if (ball.nextx-ball.radius < 0 ) {
ball.velocityx = ball.velocityx*-1;
ball.nextx =ball.radius;

} else if (ball.nexty+ball.radius > theCanvas.height ) {
ball.velocityy = ball.velocityy*-1;
ball.nexty = theCanvas.height - ball.radius;

} else if(ball.nexty-ball.radius < 0) {
ball.velocityy = ball.velocityy*-1;
ball.nexty = ball.radius;
}

}

}

function render() {
var ball;
context.fillStyle = "#000000";
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
ball.x = ball.nextx;
ball.y = ball.nexty;

context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,ball.radius,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
}

}

function collide() {
var ball;
var testBall;
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
for (var j = i+1; j < balls.length; j++) {
testBall = balls[j];
if (hitTestCircle(ball,testBall)) {
collideBalls(ball,testBall);
}
}
}
}

function hitTestCircle(ball1,ball2) {
var retval = false;
var dx = ball1.nextx - ball2.nextx;
var dy = ball1.nexty - ball2.nexty;
var distance = (dx * dx + dy * dy);
if (distance <= (ball1.radius + ball2.radius) *
(ball1.radius + ball2.radius) )
{
retval = true;
}
return retval;
}

function collideBalls(ball1,ball2) {

var dx = ball1.nextx - ball2.nextx;
var dy = ball1.nexty - ball2.nexty;

var collisionAngle = Math.atan2(dy, dx);

var speed1 = Math.sqrt(ball1.velocityx * ball1.velocityx +
ball1.velocityy * ball1.velocityy);
var speed2 = Math.sqrt(ball2.velocityx * ball2.velocityx +
ball2.velocityy * ball2.velocityy);

var direction1 = Math.atan2(ball1.velocityy, ball1.velocityx);
var direction2 = Math.atan2(ball2.velocityy, ball2.velocityx);

var velocityx_1 = speed1 * Math.cos(direction1 - collisionAngle);
var velocityy_1 = speed1 * Math.sin(direction1 - collisionAngle);
var velocityx_2 = speed2 * Math.cos(direction2 - collisionAngle);
var velocityy_2 = speed2 * Math.sin(direction2 - collisionAngle);

var final_velocityx_1 = ((ball1.mass - ball2.mass) * velocityx_1 +
(ball2.mass + ball2.mass) * velocityx_2)/(ball1.mass + ball2.mass);
var final_velocityx_2 = ((ball1.mass + ball1.mass) * velocityx_1 +
(ball2.mass - ball1.mass) * velocityx_2)/(ball1.mass + ball2.mass);

var final_velocityy_1 = velocityy_1;
var final_velocityy_2 = velocityy_2;

ball1.velocityx = Math.cos(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_1 +
Math.cos(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_1;
ball1.velocityy = Math.sin(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_1 +
Math.sin(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_1;
ball2.velocityx = Math.cos(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_2 +
Math.cos(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_2;
ball2.velocityy = Math.sin(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_2 +
Math.sin(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_2;

ball1.nextx = (ball1.nextx += ball1.velocityx);
ball1.nexty = (ball1.nexty += ball1.velocityy);
ball2.nextx = (ball2.nextx += ball2.velocityx);
ball2.nexty = (ball2.nexty += ball2.velocityy);
}

var numBalls = 200 ;
var maxSize = 15;
var minSize = 5;
var maxSpeed = maxSize+5;
var balls = new Array();
var tempBall;
var tempX;
var tempY;
var tempSpeed;
var tempAngle;
var tempRadius;
var tempRadians;
var tempvelocityx;
var tempvelocityy;

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

for (var i = 0; i < numBalls; i++) {
tempRadius = 5;
var placeOK = false;
while (!placeOK) {
tempX = tempRadius*3 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.width)
-tempRadius*3);
tempY = tempRadius*3 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.height)
-tempRadius*3);
tempSpeed = 4;
tempAngle = Math.floor(Math.random()*360);
tempRadians = tempAngle * Math.PI/ 180;
tempvelocityx = Math.cos(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;
tempvelocityy = Math.sin(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;

tempBall = {x:tempX,y:tempY, nextX: tempX, nextY: tempY, radius:tempRadius,
speed:tempSpeed, angle:tempAngle, velocityx:tempvelocityx,
velocityy:tempvelocityy, mass:tempRadius};
placeOK = canStartHere(tempBall);
}
balls.push(tempBall);
}

function canStartHere(ball) {
var retval = true;
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
if (hitTestCircle(ball, balls[i])) {
retval = false;
}
}
return retval;
}
function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;"><canvas id="canvasOne"
width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

Now, when you execute Example 5-7 (CH5EX7.html), you will see a bunch of balls of the same size and mass bumping off of each other and the walls of the canvas, as shown in Figure 5-10. When you look at this demo, imagine all the ways you could modify it to do different things. You could create balls with different masses and different speeds, or even create balls that don’t move but simply alter the direction of other balls that hit them. In Figure 5-11, we will take a slightly different look at this same code and add some new properties to make it more interesting.

### Multiple Balls Bouncing with Friction

If we want the balls to slow down and eventually stop, we need to add friction to Example 5-7. For our purposes, simple friction is a value we use to modify the velocity of our objects every time they are drawn to the canvas.

In canvasApp(), we now want to create balls of various sizes. In the previous example, the balls were all the same size. It worked, but having balls of different sizes with different masses will create more interesting effects. To do this, we set minSize to 3 and maxSize to 12, meaning that the radii for our balls will range from 3 to 12 pixels. We also add a new property named friction. This is a global property, so it will not be applied to each individual ball. We set it to .01, which means our balls will degrade their x and y velocities by .01 pixels per frame (every time drawScreen() is called):

var numBalls = 50 ;
var maxSize = 12;
var minSize = 3;
var maxSpeed = maxSize+5;
var friction = .01;

We will now allow for various ball sizes. The mass of each ball will be different, and balls will have different effects on one another depending on their sizes. Recall that in Example 5-7 we needed a mass property so that we could calculate conservation of momentum when the balls collided. We are doing the same thing here, but now the masses are different depending on the size:

for (var i = 0; i < numBalls; i++) {
tempRadius = Math.floor(Math.random()*maxSize)+minSize;

In update(), we apply the friction value by calculating the product of the current velocity multiplied by friction and then subtracting that value from the current velocity. We do this for both the x and y velocities. Why must we do this instead of simply subtracting the friction value from the x and y velocities? Because the x and y velocities are not always proportional to each other. If we simply subtract the friction, we might alter the velocity unintentionally. Instead, we need to subtract a value for the friction that is proportional to the velocity itself, and that value is the product of the velocity multiplied by the friction value. This method will give you a smooth degradation of the velocity when the friction value is applied:

function update() {
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
//Friction
ball.velocityx = ball.velocityx - ( ball.velocityx*friction);
ball.velocityy = ball.velocityy - ( ball.velocityy*friction);

ball.nextx = (ball.x += ball.velocityx);
ball.nexty = (ball.y += ball.velocityy);
}

}

You can see the full version of this code by executing CH5EX8.html from the code distribution, or by typing in Example 5-8. You should notice that the smaller balls have less of an effect on the larger balls when they collide, and vice versa. Also, the balls slow down as they move, due to the applied friction.

Example 5-8. Balls with friction
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX8: Balls With Friction</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();

}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

update();
testWalls();
collide();
render();

}

function update() {
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
//Friction
ball.velocityx = ball.velocityx - ( ball.velocityx*friction);
ball.velocityy = ball.velocityy - ( ball.velocityy*friction);

ball.nextx = (ball.x += ball.velocityx);
ball.nexty = (ball.y += ball.velocityy);
}

}

function testWalls() {
var ball;
var testBall;

for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];

if (ball.nextx+ball.radius > theCanvas.width) {
ball.velocityx = ball.velocityx*-1;
ball.nextx = theCanvas.width - ball.radius;

} else if (ball.nextx-ball.radius < 0 ) {
ball.velocityx = ball.velocityx*-1;
ball.nextx = ball.radius;

} else if (ball.nexty+ball.radius > theCanvas.height ) {
ball.velocityy = ball.velocityy*-1;
ball.nexty = theCanvas.height - ball.radius;

} else if(ball.nexty-ball.radius < 0) {
ball.velocityy = ball.velocityy*-1;
ball.nexty = ball.radius;
}

}

}

function render() {
var ball;

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
ball.x = ball.nextx;
ball.y = ball.nexty;

context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,ball.radius,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
}

}

function collide() {
var ball;
var testBall;
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
ball = balls[i];
for (var j = i+1; j < balls.length; j++) {
testBall = balls[j];
if (hitTestCircle(ball,testBall)) {
collideBalls(ball,testBall);
}
}
}
}

function hitTestCircle(ball1,ball2) {
var retval = false;
var dx = ball1.nextx - ball2.nextx;
var dy = ball1.nexty - ball2.nexty;
var distance = (dx * dx + dy * dy);
if (distance <= (ball1.radius + ball2.radius) * (ball1.radius + ball2.radius)
) {
retval = true;
}
return retval;
}

function collideBalls(ball1,ball2) {

var dx = ball1.nextx - ball2.nextx;
var dy = ball1.nexty - ball2.nexty;

var collisionAngle = Math.atan2(dy, dx);

var speed1 = Math.sqrt(ball1.velocityx * ball1.velocityx +
ball1.velocityy * ball1.velocityy);
var speed2 = Math.sqrt(ball2.velocityx * ball2.velocityx +
ball2.velocityy * ball2.velocityy);

var direction1 = Math.atan2(ball1.velocityy, ball1.velocityx);
var direction2 = Math.atan2(ball2.velocityy, ball2.velocityx);

var velocityx_1 = speed1 * Math.cos(direction1 - collisionAngle);
var velocityy_1 = speed1 * Math.sin(direction1 - collisionAngle);
var velocityx_2 = speed2 * Math.cos(direction2 - collisionAngle);
var velocityy_2 = speed2 * Math.sin(direction2 - collisionAngle);

var final_velocityx_1 = ((ball1.mass - ball2.mass) * velocityx_1 +
(ball2.mass + ball2.mass) * velocityx_2)/(ball1.mass + ball2.mass);
var final_velocityx_2 = ((ball1.mass + ball1.mass) * velocityx_1 +
(ball2.mass - ball1.mass) * velocityx_2)/(ball1.mass + ball2.mass);

var final_velocityy_1 = velocityy_1;
var final_velocityy_2 = velocityy_2;

ball1.velocityx = Math.cos(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_1 +
Math.cos(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_1;
ball1.velocityy = Math.sin(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_1 +
Math.sin(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_1;
ball2.velocityx = Math.cos(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_2 +
Math.cos(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_2;
ball2.velocityy = Math.sin(collisionAngle) * final_velocityx_2 +
Math.sin(collisionAngle + Math.PI/2) * final_velocityy_2;

ball1.nextx = (ball1.nextx += ball1.velocityx);
ball1.nexty = (ball1.nexty += ball1.velocityy);
ball2.nextx = (ball2.nextx += ball2.velocityx);
ball2.nexty = (ball2.nexty += ball2.velocityy);
}
var numBalls = 50 ;
var maxSize = 12;
var minSize = 3;
var maxSpeed = maxSize+5;
var balls = new Array();
var tempBall;
var tempX;
var tempY;
var tempSpeed;
var tempAngle;
var tempRadius;
var tempRadians;
var tempvelocityx;
var tempvelocityy;
var friction = .01;

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

for (var i = 0; i < numBalls; i++) {
tempRadius = Math.floor(Math.random()*maxSize)+minSize;
var placeOK = false;
while (!placeOK) {
tempX = tempRadius*3 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.width)
-tempRadius*3);
tempY = tempRadius*3 + (Math.floor(Math.random()*theCanvas.height)
-tempRadius*3);
tempSpeed = maxSpeed-tempRadius;
tempAngle = Math.floor(Math.random()*360);
tempRadians = tempAngle * Math.PI/ 180;
tempvelocityx = Math.cos(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;
tempvelocityy = Math.sin(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;

tempBall = {x:tempX,y:tempY,radius:tempRadius, speed:tempSpeed,
angle:tempAngle, velocityx:tempvelocityx, velocityy:tempvelocityy,
mass:tempRadius*8, nextx: tempX, nexty:tempY};
placeOK = canStartHere(tempBall);
}
balls.push(tempBall);
}

function canStartHere(ball) {
var retval = true;
for (var i = 0; i <balls.length; i++) {
if (hitTestCircle(ball, balls[i])) {
retval = false;
}
}
return retval;
}
function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

Figure 5-12 illustrates how this code will look in the browser.

## Curve and Circular Movement

Whew! Moving and colliding balls on vectors can create some cool effects. However, moving in straight lines is not the only way you might want to move objects. In this section, we will show you some ways to animate objects by using circles, spirals, and curves.

### Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion occurs when we move an object along the distinct radius of a defined circle. When we know the radius, we can use our old friends cosine and sine to find the x and y locations of the moving object. The equations to find the locations of an object moving uniformly on a defined circle are as follows:

x = radius * cosine(angle)
y = radius * sine(angle)

We will create an example of uniform circular movement with a circle that has a radius of 125, with its center position at 250,250 on the canvas. We will move a ball along that circle, starting at an angle of 0.

In canvasApp(), we will define this circle path as a dynamic object stored in the circle variable. While this object defines the properties of a circle, we will not actually draw this circle on the canvas; rather, it defines only the path on which we will move our ball object:

var circle = {centerX:250, centerY:250, radius:125, angle:0}
var ball = {x:0, y:0,speed:.1};

In drawScreen(), we will incorporate the equations for uniform circular movement. To do this, we will set the x and y properties of the ball object to the products of the equations, added to the center location of the circle path on the canvas (circle.centerX, circle.centerY):

ball.x = circle.centerX + Math.cos(circle.angle) * circle.radius;
ball.y = circle.centerY + Math.sin(circle.angle) * circle.radius;

We then add the speed of the ball to the angle of the circle path. This effectively sets the ball to move to a new location the next time drawScreen() is called:

circle.angle += ball.speed;

Finally, we draw the ball onto the canvas:

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,15,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

You can see what the circle path looks like in Figure 5-13. We have drawn the points on the canvas to illustrate the circle path.

You can easily alter the location and size of the circle path by altering the radius, centerX, and centerY properties of the circle path object.

Example 5-9 shows the code for CH5EX9.html.

Example 5-9. Moving in a circle
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX9: Moving In A Circle</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();

}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

ball.x = circle.centerX + Math.cos(circle.angle) * circle.radius;
ball.y = circle.centerY + Math.sin(circle.angle) * circle.radius;

circle.angle += ball.speed;

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,15,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

}

var radius = 100;
var circle = {centerX:250, centerY:250, radius:125, angle:0}
var ball = {x:0, y:0,speed:.1};

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

### Moving in a Simple Spiral

There are many complicated ways to move an object on a spiral path. One such way would be to use the Fibonacci sequence, which describes a pattern seen in nature that appears to create perfect spirals. The Fibonacci sequence starts with the number 0, and continues with each subsequent number calculated as the sum of the two previous numbers in the sequence. Each subsequent rotation of the spiral is the sum of the two previous numbers (1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89...). However, as you might imagine, the math used to create this sequence is quite involved, and it is also difficult to translate to object movement.

For our purposes, we can create a simple spiral by increasing the radius of the circle path on each call to drawScreen(). If we take the code from Example 5-9, we would add a radiusInc variable, which we will use as the value to add the radius movement path of the circle. We create this new variable in canvasApp():

var radiusInc = 2;

Then, in drawScreen(), we add the following code to increase the radius of the circle every time we move the object:

circle.radius += radiusInc;

In Figure 5-14, you can see what the resulting spiral looks like. (To illustrate the path, this example includes the points.)

If you want a tighter spiral, decrease the value of radiusInc. Conversely, if you want a wider spiral, increase the value of radiusInc.

Example 5-10 shows the code for CH5EX10.html from the code distribution.

Example 5-10. Moving in a simple geometric spiral
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX10: Moving In A Simple Geometric Spiral </title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();

}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

var pointImage = new Image();
pointImage.src = "point.png";
function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

ball.x = circle.centerX + Math.cos(circle.angle) * circle.radius;
ball.y = circle.centerY + Math.sin(circle.angle) * circle.radius;
circle.angle += ball.speed;
circle.radius += radiusInc;

//Draw points to illustrate path

points.push({x:ball.x,y:ball.y});

for (var i = 0; i< points.length; i++) {
context.drawImage(pointImage, points[i].x, points[i].y,1,1);
}

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,15,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

}

var radiusInc = 2;
var circle = {centerX:250, centerY:250, radius:2, angle:0, radiusInc:2}
var ball = {x:0, y:0,speed:.1};
var points = new Array();

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

### Cubic Bezier Curve Movement

Cubic Bezier curves can be used to define a movement path for an object. Pierre Bezier first popularized these curves in the 1960s. They are widely used in 2D vector graphics to define smooth curves for drawing, but they can also be used in animation to define a path for motion.

A cubic Bezier curve is created using four distinct points—p0, p1, p2, and p3:

p0

The starting point of the curve. We will refer to these x and y values as x0 and y0.

p3

The ending point of the curve. We will refer to these x and y values as x3 and y3.

p1 and p2

The control points for the curve. The curve does not pass through these points; instead, the equation uses these points to determine the arc of the curve. We will refer to these x and y values as x0, x1, x2, x3, y0, y1, y2, and y3.

The usage of the p1 and p2 points is the biggest stumbling block for understanding Bezier curves. The easiest way to understand the relationship between these points and the curve is to draw them on a bitmapped canvas, which we will do several times in this chapter.

After you have the four points, you need to calculate six coefficient values that you will use to find the x and y locations as you move an object on the curve. These coefficients are known as ax, bx, cx, ay, by, and cy. They are calculated as follows:

cx = 3 * (x1 - x0)
bx = 3 *(x2 - x1) - cx
ax = x3 - x0 - cx - bx
cy = 3 * (y1 - y0)
by = 3 * (y2 - y1) - cy
ay = y3 - y0 - cy - by

After you’ve calculated the six coefficients, you can find the x and y locations based on the changing t value using the following equations. The t value represents movement over time:

x(t) = axt3 + bxt2 + cxt + x0
y(t) = ayt3 + byt2 + cyt + y0

For our purposes, the t value will be increased by the speed at which we want the object to move. However, you will notice that this value does not easily equate to the speed values we used elsewhere in this chapter. The reason is that the t value was not created with movement over time for animation in mind. The speed we specify must be smaller than 1 so that the movement on the curve will be incremental enough for us to see it as part of the animation. For our example, we will increase t by a speed of .01 so that we will see 100 points on the movement curve (1/100 = .01). This is advantageous because we will know our object has finished moving when the t value is equal to 1.

For Example 5-11 (CH5EX11.html), we will start by creating the four points of the Bezier curve in the canvasApp() function:

var p0 = {x:60, y:10};
var p1 = {x:70, y:200};
var p2 = {x:125, y:295};
var p3 = {x:350, y:350};

We then create a new ball object with a couple differing properties from those in the other examples in this chapter. The speed is .01, which means that the object will move 100 points along the curve before it is finished. We start the t value at 0, which means that the ball will begin at p0:

var ball = {x:0, y:0, speed:.01, t:0};

Next, in the drawScreen() function, we calculate the Bezier curve coefficient values (ax, bx, cx, ay, by, cy) based on the four points (p0, p1, p2, p3):

var cx = 3 * (p1.x - p0.x);
var bx = 3 * (p2.x - p1.x) - cx;
var ax = p3.x - p0.x - cx - bx;

var cy = 3 * (p1.y - p0.y);
var by = 3 * (p2.y - p1.y) - cy;
var ay = p3.y - p0.y - cy - by;

Then we take our t value and use it with the coefficients to calculate the x and y values for the moving object. First, we get the t value from the ball object, and we store it locally so that we can use it in our calculations:

var t = ball.t;

Next we add the speed to the t value so that we can calculate the next point on the Bezier path:

ball.t += ball.speed;

Then we use the t value to calculate the x and y values (xt, yt) using the Bezier curve equations:

var xt = ax*(t*t*t) + bx*(t*t) + cx*t + p0.x;
var yt = ay*(t*t*t) + by*(t*t) + cy*t + p0.y;

We add the speed to the t value of ball and then check to see whether t is greater than 1. If so, we don’t increase it any further because we have finished moving on the curve:

ball.t += ball.speed;

if (ball.t > 1) {
ball.t = 1;
}

Finally, when we draw the ball object on the canvas, we use the xt and yt values:

context.arc(xt,yt,5,0,Math.PI*2,true);

Figure 5-15 shows what Example 5-11 (CH5EX11.html) looks like when it is executed in a web browser. In addition to drawing the points of the path using the points array, we also draw the four points of the Bezier curve. These illustrate the relationship of the points to the curve itself. Notice that the curve does not pass through p1 or p2.

Example 5-11 gives the full code listing for CH5EX11.html, including the code to draw the Bezier curve points on the canvas. You can find that code in the drawScreen() function following the //draw the points comment.

Example 5-11. Moving on a cubic Bezier curve
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX11: Moving On A Cubic Bezier Curve </title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();

}
function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

var pointImage = new Image();
pointImage.src = "point.png";

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

var t = ball.t;

var cx = 3 * (p1.x - p0.x)
var bx = 3 * (p2.x - p1.x) - cx;
var ax = p3.x - p0.x - cx - bx;

var cy = 3 * (p1.y - p0.y);
var by = 3 * (p2.y - p1.y) - cy;
var ay = p3.y - p0.y - cy - by;

var xt = ax*(t*t*t) + bx*(t*t) + cx*t + p0.x;
var yt = ay*(t*t*t) + by*(t*t) + cy*t + p0.y;

ball.t += ball.speed;

if (ball.t > 1) {
ball.t = 1;
}      //draw the points

context.font ="10px sans";
context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p0.x,p0.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("0",p0.x-2,p0.y+2);

context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p1.x,p1.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("1",p1.x-2,p1.y+2);

context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p2.x,p2.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("2",p2.x-2, p2.y+2);

context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p3.x,p3.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("3",p3.x-2, p3.y+2);

//Draw points to illustrate path

points.push({x:xt,y:yt});

for (var i = 0; i< points.length; i++) {
context.drawImage(pointImage, points[i].x, points[i].y,1,1);
}

context.closePath();

//Draw circle moving

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(xt,yt,5,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

}

var p0 = {x:60, y:10};
var p1 = {x:70, y:200};
var p2 = {x:125, y:295};
var p3 = {x:350, y:350};
var ball = {x:0, y:0, speed:.01, t:0};
var points = new Array();

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

### Moving an Image

Moving an image on a cubic Bezier curve path is just as easy as moving a circular drawing object, as we’ll demonstrate in the next two examples. Suppose you are making a game where bull’s-eyes move across the canvas and the player must shoot at them. You could use cubic Bezier curve paths to create new and interesting patterns for the bull’s-eyes to move along.

For this example, we first create a global variable named bullseye, which we will use to hold the bullseye.png image that we will load to display on the canvas:

var bullseye;
function eventWindowLoaded() {
bullseye = new Image();
bullseye.src = "bullseye.png"
bullseye.onload = eventAssetsLoaded;
}

In canvasApp(), we will create a different path for the curve from the one in the first example by setting new values for p0, p1, p2, and p3. Using these values, the bullseye will move on a parabola-like path. (Figure 5-16 shows the path of the curve.)

var p0 = {x:60, y:10};
var p1 = {x:150, y:350};
var p2 = {x:300, y:375};
var p3 = {x:400, y:20};

We also need to create a player object that represents the bull’s-eye on the canvas:

var player = {x:0, y:0, speed:.01, t:0};

In drawImage(), after we calculate t, xt, and yt, we draw the image on the canvas:

player.x = xt-bullseye.width/2;
player.y = yt-bullseye.height/2;

context.drawImage(bullseye,player.x,player.y);

The rest of Example 5-12 works just like Example 5-11.

Example 5-12. Moving an image
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX12: Moving An Image </title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);

var bullseye;
function eventWindowLoaded() {
bullseye = new Image();
bullseye.src = "bullseye.png"
bullseye.onload = eventAssetsLoaded;
}

function eventAssetsLoaded() {

canvasApp();
}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

var pointImage = new Image();
pointImage.src = "point.png";
function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

var t = player.t;

var cx = 3 * (p1.x - p0.x)
var bx = 3 * (p2.x - p1.x) - cx;
var ax = p3.x - p0.x - cx - bx;

var cy = 3 * (p1.y - p0.y);
var by = 3 * (p2.y - p1.y) - cy;
var ay = p3.y - p0.y - cy - by;

var xt = ax*(t*t*t) + bx*(t*t) + cx*t + p0.x;

var yt = ay*(t*t*t) + by*(t*t) + cy*t + p0.y;

player.t += player.speed;

if (player.t > 1) {
player.t = 1;
}      //draw the points

context.font = "10px sans";

context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p0.x,p0.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("0",p0.x-2,p0.y+2);

context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p1.x,p1.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("1",p1.x-2,p1.y+2);

context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p2.x,p2.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("2",p2.x-2, p2.y+2);

context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p3.x,p3.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("3",p3.x-2, p3.y+2);

//Draw points to illustrate path

points.push({x:xt,y:yt});

for (var i = 0; i< points.length; i++) {
context.drawImage(pointImage, points[i].x, points[i].y,1,1);
}

context.closePath();

player.x = xt-bullseye.width/2;
player.y = yt-bullseye.height/2;

context.drawImage(bullseye,player.x,player.y);

}

var p0 = {x:60, y:10};
var p1 = {x:150, y:350};
var p2 = {x:300, y:375};
var p3 = {x:400, y:20};
var player = {x:0, y:0, speed:.01, t:0};
var points = new Array();

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

### Creating a Cubic Bezier Curve Loop

You can create some very interesting paths using the four points in a cubic Bezier curve. One such effect is a loop. To create a loop, you need to make sure the points form an X, with p0 diagonal from p1, and p2 and p3 on an opposite diagonal from the other two points. p0 and p3 must be closer to the center of the canvas than p1 or p2. The points we will use to create this effect in Example 5-13 are as follows:

var p0 = {x:150, y:440;
var p1 = {x:450, y:10};
var p2 = {x:50, y:10};
var p3 = {x:325, y:450};

Because it is much easier to show than tell when it comes to cubic Bezier curves, look at Figure 5-17. It shows what the looping curve looks like when Example 5-13 is executed in a web browser.

This effect can be created only with the four points of a cubic Bezier curve. There is also a three-point Bezier curve known as a quadratic Bezier curve. You cannot create loops or S curves with quadratic Bezier curves because the three points are not as precise as the four points of a cubic Bezier curve.

Because the code for this example is essentially the same as in Example 5-12 (besides the four points), we have highlighted in bold the changed code in Example 5-13. We have done this to show you that—with relatively simple changes—you can create dramatic animation effects using cubic Bezier curves.

Example 5-13. Bezier curve loop
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX13: Bezier Curve Loop </title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);

var bullseye;
function eventWindowLoaded() {
bullseye = new Image();
bullseye.src = "bullseye.png"
bullseye.onload = eventAssetsLoaded;
}

function eventAssetsLoaded() {

canvasApp();
}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

var pointImage = new Image();
pointImage.src = "point.png";
function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

var t = player.t;

var cx = 3 * (p1.x - p0.x)
var bx = 3 * (p2.x - p1.x) - cx;
var ax = p3.x - p0.x - cx - bx;

var cy = 3 * (p1.y - p0.y);
var by = 3 * (p2.y - p1.y) - cy;
var ay = p3.y - p0.y - cy - by;

var xt = ax*(t*t*t) + bx*(t*t) + cx*t + p0.x;

var yt = ay*(t*t*t) + by*(t*t) + cy*t + p0.y;

player.t += player.speed;

if (player.t > 1) {
player.t = 1;
}
//draw the points

context.font = "10px sans";

context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p0.x,p0.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("0",p0.x-2,p0.y+2);

context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p1.x,p1.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("1",p1.x-2,p1.y+2);

context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p2.x,p2.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("2",p2.x-2, p2.y+2);

context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(p3.x,p3.y,8,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = "#FFFFFF";
context.fillText("3",p3.x-2, p3.y+2);

points.push({x:xt,y:yt});

for (var i = 0; i< points.length; i++) {
context.drawImage(pointImage, points[i].x, points[i].y,1,1);
}

context.closePath();

player.x = xt-bullseye.width/2;
player.y = yt-bullseye.height/2;

context.drawImage(bullseye,player.x,player.y);

}

var p0 = {x:150, y:440};
var p1 = {x:450, y:10};
var p2 = {x:50, y:10};
var p3 = {x:325, y:450};
var player = {x:0, y:0, speed:.01, t:0};

var points = new Array();

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();
;

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

## Simple Gravity, Elasticity, and Friction

Adding simulated gravity, elasticity, and friction to your objects adds a sense of realism that otherwise would not exist in 2D. These properties are major forces in nature that people feel and understand at nearly every moment of their lives. This means that people who play games expect objects to act in a particular way when these properties are applied. Our job is to simulate those effects as closely as possible, while minimizing the processing power necessary to create them. While there are some very complicated physics equations we could use to create these effects, we will use simplified versions that work well with the limited resources available to HTML5 Canvas in a web browser.

### Simple Gravity

A very simple yet seemingly realistic gravitational effect can be achieved by applying a constant gravity value to the y velocity of an object moving on a vector. To do this, select a value for gravity, such as .1, and then add that value to the y velocity of your object on every call to drawScreen().

For this example, let’s simulate a ball with a radius of 15 pixels being shot from a cannon that rests near the bottom of the canvas. The ball will move at a speed of 4 pixels per frame, with an angle of 305 degrees. This means it will move up and to the right on the canvas. If we did not apply any gravity, the ball would simply keep moving on that vector until it left the canvas. (Actually, it would keep moving; we just would not see it any longer.)

You have seen the code to create an effect like this already. In the canvasApp() function, we would create the starting variables like this:

var speed = 4;
var angle = 305;
var radians = angle * Math.PI/ 180;
var radius = 15;
var vx = Math.cos(radians) * speed;
var vy = Math.sin(radians) * speed;

Next we create the starting point for the ball as p1, and then we create a dynamic object that holds all the values we created for the ball object:

var p1 = {x:20,y:theCanvas.height-radius};
var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y, velocityx: vx, velocityy:vy, radius:radius};

If we want to add gravity to the application, we would first create a new variable named gravity and set it to a constant value of .1:

var gravity = .1;

Next, in the drawScreen() function, we apply this gravity value to the ball object when it is drawn to the canvas (ball.velocityy += gravity). We want the ball to stop moving when it hits the “ground” (the bottom of the canvas), so we test to see whether the y position of the ball plus the radius of the ball (the outer edge) has passed the bottom of the canvas (ball.y + ball.radius <= theCanvas.height). If so, we stop the ball’s movement:

if (ball.y + ball.radius <= theCanvas.height) {
ball.velocityy += gravity;
} else {
ball.velocityx = 0;
ball.velocityy = 0;
ball.y = theCanvas.height - ball.radius;

}

Next we apply the constant x velocity and the new y velocity to ball and draw it to the canvas:

ball.y += ball.velocityy;
ball.x += ball.velocityx;

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,ball.radius,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

Figure 5-18 shows what the path looks like when simple gravity is applied to a ball moving on a vector. We have added the points to illustrate the path.

You can test out Example 5-14 with the file CH5EX14.html in the code distribution, or type in the full code listing below.

Example 5-14. Simple gravity
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX14: Simple Gravity</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();
}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

if (ball.y + ball.radius <= theCanvas.height) {
ball.velocityy += gravity;
} else {
ball.velocityx = 0;
ball.velocityy = 0;
ball.y = theCanvas.height - ball.radius;

}

ball.y += ball.velocityy;
ball.x += ball.velocityx;

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,ball.radius,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

}
var speed = 4;

var gravity = .1;
var angle = 305;
var radians = angle * Math.PI/ 180;
var radius = 15;
var vx = Math.cos(radians) * speed;
var vy = Math.sin(radians) * speed;

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

var p1 = {x:20,y:theCanvas.height-radius};
var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y, velocityx: vx, velocityy:vy, radius:radius};

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

### Simple Gravity with a Bounce

The last example showed what a cannonball might look like if it were shot out, landed on a surface, and stuck there with no reaction. However, even a heavy cannonball will bounce when it hits the ground.

To create a bouncing effect, we do not have to change the code very much at all. In drawScreen(), we first apply gravity on every frame; then, instead of stopping the ball if it hits the bottom of the canvas, we simply need to reverse the y velocity of ball when it hits the ground.

In CH5EX14.html you would replace this code:

if (ball.y + ball.radius <= theCanvas.height) {
ball.velocityy += gravity;
} else {
ball.velocityx = 0;
ball.velocityy = 0;
ball.y = theCanvas.height - ball.radius;
}

With this:

ball.velocityy += gravity;
if ((ball.y + ball.radius) > theCanvas.height) {
ball.velocityy = -(ball.velocityy)
}

This code will send the ball bouncing back “up” the canvas. Because it is still traveling on the vector and gravity is applied every time drawScreen() is called, the ball will eventually come down again as the applied gravity overtakes the reversed y velocity.

Figure 5-19 shows what the cannonball looks like when the bounce is applied.

To achieve a nice-looking bounce for this example, we also changed the angle of the vector in canvasApp() to 295:

var angle = 295;

Example 5-15 offers the full code.

Example 5-15. Simple gravity with a bounce
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX15: Gravity With A Bounce</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();

}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

ball.velocityy  += gravity;

if ((ball.y + ball.radius) > theCanvas.height) {
ball.velocityy = -(ball.velocityy)
}
ball.y += ball.velocityy;
ball.x += ball.velocityx;

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,ball.radius,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

}
var speed = 5;

var gravity = .1;
var angle = 295;
var radians = angle * Math.PI/ 180;
var radius = 15;

var vx = Math.cos(radians) * speed;
var vy = Math.sin(radians) * speed;

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

var p1 = {x:20,y:theCanvas.height-radius};
var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y, velocityx: vx, velocityy:vy, radius:radius};

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

### Gravity with Bounce and Applied Simple Elasticity

In physics, the elasticity of a bouncing ball refers to how much energy is conserved when a ball bounces off a surface. We already covered a bit about conservation of energy when we discussed balls colliding, but when we are simulating objects falling, we need to take a slightly different path with our code. In Example 5-15, we applied 100% elasticity and the ball bounced forever. (Actually, this was only implied because we did not consider elasticity at all.) However, in real life, balls usually lose some of their energy every time they bounce off a surface. The amount of energy conserved depends on the material the ball is made from, as well as the surface it is bouncing on. For example, a rubber Super Ball is much more elastic than a cannonball and will bounce higher on the first bounce off a surface. Both will bounce higher off a concrete surface than a surface made of thick mud. Eventually, both will come to rest on the surface as all the energy is transferred away from the ball.

We can simulate simple elasticity by applying a constant value to the ball when it bounces off the ground. For this example, we will set the speed of the ball to 6 pixels per frame and the angle to 285. We will keep our gravity at .1 but set a new variable named elasticity to .5. To make this more straightforward, we will also assume that the surface the ball is bouncing on does not add or subtract from the elasticity of the ball.

In canvasApp(), we would set the new properties like this:

var speed = 6;
var gravity = .1;
var elasticity = .5;
var angle = 285;

We then add the new elasticity property to the ball object because, unlike gravity, elasticity describes a property of an object, not the entire world it resides within. This means that having multiple balls with different values for elasticity would be very easy to implement:

var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y, velocityx: vx, velocityy:vy, radius:radius,
elasticity: elasticity};

In the drawScreen() function, we still add the gravity value to the y velocity (velocityy). However, instead of simply reversing the y velocity when the ball hits the bottom of the canvas, we also multiply the y velocity by the elasticity value stored in the ball.elasticity property. This applies the elasticity to the bounce, preserving the y velocity by the percentage value of elasticity for the object:

ball.velocityy += gravity;
if ((ball.y + ball.radius) > theCanvas.height) {
ball.velocityy = -(ball.velocityy)*ball.elasticity;
}
ball.y += ball.velocityy;
ball.x += ball.velocityx;

In Figure 5-20, you can see what this application looks like when executed in a web browser.

With gravity applied, the bounce is not exactly as you might expect. Gravity is always pulling down on our object, so the effect of a loss of y velocity due to an elastic bounce is pronounced.

The full code is shown in Example 5-16.

Example 5-16. Simple gravity with bounce and elasticity
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX16: Gravity With A Vector With Bounce And Elasticity</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();

}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

ball.velocityy += gravity;

if ((ball.y + ball.radius) > theCanvas.height) {
ball.velocityy = -(ball.velocityy)*ball.elasticity;
}
ball.y += ball.velocityy;
ball.x += ball.velocityx;

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,ball.radius,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

}
var speed = 6;
var gravity = .1;
var elasticity = .5;
var angle = 285;
var radians = angle * Math.PI/ 180;
var radius = 15;

var vx = Math.cos(radians) * speed;
var vy = Math.sin(radians) * speed;

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

var p1 = {x:20,y:theCanvas.height-radius};
var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y, velocityx: vx, velocityy:vy, radius:radius,
elasticity: elasticity};

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

### Simple Gravity, Simple Elasticity, and Simple Friction

Now that we have a ball traveling on a vector that is affected by both gravity and elasticity, we have one more element to add to make the animation more realistic. In the previous example, the y velocity was affected by gravity and elasticity, but the ball still traveled on the x-axis without any degradation in velocity. We will fix this issue now by adding friction into the equation.

In physics, friction is a force that resists the motion of an object. We have already discussed friction as it applies to colliding balls, and this implementation is similar except that it affects only the x velocity. For our purposes, we will achieve simple friction by degrading the x velocity as gravity degrades the y velocity.

Taking the code from Example 5-16, in canvasApp() we create a new variable named friction. This is the amount of pixels to degrade the x velocity on every frame:

var friction = .008;

Notice that the amount is quite small. Friction does not have to be a large value to look realistic—it just needs to be applied uniformly each time drawScreen() is called. In drawScreen(), we apply friction to the x velocity like this:

ball.velocityx = ball.velocityx - ( ball.velocityx*friction);

This is the same type of proportional application of friction we used with the colliding balls, but again, this time we applied it only to the x velocity.

Figure 5-21 shows what this final version of our application looks like when executed in a web browser.

Example 5-17 gives the full code for CH5EX17.html, the final code of our simple gravity, simple elasticity, and simple friction example.

Example 5-17. Gravity with a vector with bounce friction
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX17: Gravity With A Vector With Bounce Friction</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();
}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

ball.velocityx = ball.velocityx - ( ball.velocityx*friction);

ball.velocityy += gravity;

if ((ball.y + ball.radius) > theCanvas.height) {
ball.velocityy = -(ball.velocityy)*ball.elasticity;
}
ball.y += ball.velocityy;
ball.x += ball.velocityx;

context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(ball.x,ball.y,ball.radius,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

}
var speed = 6;
var gravity = .1;
var friction = .008;
var elasticity = .5;
var angle = 285;
var radians = angle * Math.PI/ 180;
var radius = 15;

var vx = Math.cos(radians) * speed;
var vy = Math.sin(radians) * speed;

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

var p1 = {x:20,y:theCanvas.height-radius};
var ball = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y, velocityx: vx, velocityy:vy, radius:radius,
elasticity: elasticity};

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

## Easing

Easing is a technique used in animation to make an object smoothly enter or leave a location. The idea of easing is that instead of uniformly applying movement to every frame of animation, you instead increase (easing in) or decrease (easing out) the number of pixels you move on each frame. The result is that movement appears to be more realistic and smooth. There are many different ways to create easing animations. We will concentrate on two simple examples that will help pave the way for you to further explore the subject on your own.

### Easing Out (Landing the Ship)

The process of easing out refers to easing at the end of an animation: an object moving from one point to another, starting out fast, and slowing down as it reaches the second point. To illustrate the concept, we will use the example of a spaceship landing. A spaceship starts out very fast, applies negative thrust to slow down, and by the time it reaches the ground, it’s moving slowly enough to land without incident. If you’ve ever played the video game Lunar Lander, you will understand exactly the type of movement we are trying to accomplish.

To create this easing-out effect, we need to find two distinct points and then move an object between them, slowing down the object in linear fashion as it nears the second point. To achieve this effect, we first calculate the distance between the points. Next, we select a percentage value (easeValue) that we will use to move the object across that distance on each frame. As the distance gets shorter, the amount we move gets shorter as well. This gives the object the appearance of traveling slower and slower as it moves from the starting point to the ending point, as illustrated in Figure 5-22. We have drawn the points to show the easing values as the ship nears the bottom of the screen. Notice that the points get closer and closer until there is almost no distance between them.

Figure 5-22 displays the results of CH5EX18.html. Now, let’s look at how this example works in detail. First, we will load in the ship.png image the same way we have loaded images previously in this chapter:

var shipImage;
function eventWindowLoaded() {
shipImage = new Image();
shipImage.src = "ship.png"
shipImage.onload = eventAssetsLoaded;
}

function eventAssetsLoaded() {

canvasApp();
}

Then, in canvasApp(), we create a variable named easeValue, which represents the percentage to move the ship across the remaining distance between the two points. In our example, it is 5% (.05):

var easeValue = .05;

Next we create our two points. The first point, p1, is close to the middle of the canvas on the x-axis, and just above the top (−20) on the y-axis. The final point, p2, is in the same place on the x-axis, but near the bottom of the canvas (470) on the y-axis:

var p1 = {x:240,y:-20};
var p2 = {x:240,y:470};

Finally, we create a dynamic object for the ship that holds these values:

var ship = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y, endx: p2.x, endy:p2.y, velocityx:0, velocityy:0};

In drawScreen(), on every frame, we first find out the distance between the ship and the endpoint by subtracting the current x and y values for the ship from the endpoint x and y values. The distance will get shorter on each call to drawScreen() as the ship moves farther away from p1 and gets closer to p2. We do this for both x and y, even though, in our example, only the y value will change as the spaceship gets closer to p2:

var dx = ship.endx - ship.x;
var dy = ship.endy - ship.y;

When we have the distances, we multiply those values by easeValue to get the x and y velocities for the ship on this call to drawScreen():

ship.velocityx = dx * easeValue;
ship.velocityy = dy * easeValue;

Finally, we apply those values and draw the spaceship to the canvas:

ship.x += ship.velocityx;
ship.y += ship.velocityy;
context.drawImage(shipImage,ship.x,ship.y);

You can test this example by executing CH5EX18.html from the code distribution in your web browser, or by typing in the full code listing shown in Example 5-18.

Example 5-18. Easing out (landing the ship)
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX18:  Easing Out (Landing The Ship)</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
var shipImage;
function eventWindowLoaded() {
shipImage = new Image();
shipImage.src = "ship.png"
shipImage.onload = eventAssetsLoaded;
}

function eventAssetsLoaded() {

canvasApp();
}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

var pointImage = new Image();
pointImage.src = "pointwhite.png";
function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#000000';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#ffffff';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);
var dx = ship.endx - ship.x;
var dy = ship.endy - ship.y;

ship.velocityx = dx * easeValue;
ship.velocityy = dy * easeValue;

ship.x += ship.velocityx;
ship.y += ship.velocityy;

//Draw points to illustrate path

points.push({x:ship.x,y:ship.y});

for (var i = 0; i< points.length; i++) {
context.drawImage(pointImage, points[i].x+shipImage.width/2,
points[i].y,1,1);
}

context.drawImage(shipImage,ship.x,ship.y);

}   var easeValue = .05;
var p1 = {x:240,y:-20};
var p2 = {x:240,y:470};

var ship = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y, endx: p2.x, endy:p2.y, velocityx:0, velocityy:0};
var points = new Array();

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

We are showing the points in this example, but because the background is black, we load in a white bitmap point image named pointwhite.png instead of the all-black image, point.png.

### Easing In (Taking Off)

Easing in is the opposite of easing out. When an animation eases in, it starts slowly and then gets faster and faster. If you have ever seen a video of a space shuttle taking off, you will understand this much better. The thrust builds up as the craft at first moves slowly and then gets faster and faster as it moves through the sky. We are going to use this “taking off” example as a way to develop code for an easing-in animation on HTML5 Canvas.

In canvasApp(), we start our code much the same way as in the last example—by creating a variable named easeValue:

var easeValue = .05;

However, for easing in, instead of this being a percentage of the remaining distance between two points, it is simply a constant value added to the velocity of the ship on each frame. Figure 5-23 shows what this would look like. We have added the points again to illustrate how the animation speeds up as the ship takes off.

First, we set the beginning position of the ship (p1) to the bottom center of the canvas. Then we set the beginning speed of the ship very low (.5 pixels per frame) and set the angle to 270 (straight up the canvas). We then calculate the x and y velocity values for the ship:

var p1 = {x:240,y:470};
var tempSpeed = .5;
var tempAngle = 270 ;
var tempRadians = tempAngle * Math.PI/ 180;
var tempvelocityx = Math.cos(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;
var tempvelocityy  = Math.sin(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;

var ship = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y, velocityx:tempvelocityx, velocityy:tempvelocityy};

In drawScreen(), instead of finding the distance between two points, we add the easeValue to the x and y velocities on each frame and then apply it to the ship x and y values before drawing it to the canvas. This creates a linear increase in speed, resulting in the easing-in effect we want to see:

ship.velocityx = ship.velocityx + ( ship.velocityx*easeValue);
ship.velocityy = ship.velocityy + ( ship.velocityy*easeValue);

ship.x += ship.velocityx;
ship.y += ship.velocityy;

context.drawImage(shipImage,ship.x,ship.y);

You can see this example by executing CH5EX19.html from the code distribution, or by typing in the code listing shown in Example 5-19.

Example 5-19. Easing in (taking off)
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX19: Taking Off (Fake Ease In)</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);
var shipImage;
function eventWindowLoaded() {
shipImage = new Image();
shipImage.src = "ship.png"
shipImage.onload = eventAssetsLoaded;
}

function eventAssetsLoaded() {

canvasApp();
}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

var pointImage = new Image();
pointImage.src = "pointwhite.png";
function  drawScreen () {

context.fillStyle = '#000000';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#ffffff';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);

ship.velocityx = ship.velocityx + ( ship.velocityx*easeValue);
ship.velocityy = ship.velocityy + ( ship.velocityy*easeValue);

ship.x += ship.velocityx;
ship.y += ship.velocityy;

//Draw points to illustrate path

points.push({x:ship.x,y:ship.y});

for (var i = 0; i< points.length; i++) {
context.drawImage(pointImage, points[i].x+shipImage.width/2,
points[i].y,1,1);
}

context.drawImage(shipImage,ship.x,ship.y);

}

var easeValue = .05;
var p1 = {x:240,y:470};
var tempX;
var tempY;
var tempSpeed = .5;
var tempAngle = 270 ;
var tempRadians = tempAngle * Math.PI/ 180;
var tempvelocityx = Math.cos(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;
var tempvelocityy  = Math.sin(tempRadians) * tempSpeed;

var ship = {x:p1.x, y:p1.y, velocityx:tempvelocityx, velocityy:tempvelocityy};
var points = new Array();

theCanvas = document.getElementById("canvasOne");
context = theCanvas.getContext("2d");

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 50px; left: 50px;">

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="500">
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

For more information about easing, check out Robert Penner’s easing equations. These equations have been implemented in jQuery for JavaScript.

## Box2D and the Canvas

Now that we have discussed how to use math and physics to create animations on the Canvas, it’s time to take this discussion to the next level and implement a popular JavaScript library named Box2D. Box2D is a physics modeling library for 2D graphics. We will use it to replace some of the complex code we developed manually for some of the earlier examples in this chapter.

Box2D was originally developed for C++ by Erin Catto and gained popularity as a library named Box2DFlashAS3 for making Flash games in ActionScript 3. There are two Box2D implementations for JavaScript. The first is Box2Djs, and the other is Box2dWeb. Box2dWeb is the latest and greatest and had has been updated to Box2D 2.1, so that is the version we will use in our examples. Box2dWeb was ported directly from ActionScript 3 for use on the HTML5 Canvas.

### How Does Box2dWeb Work?

Box2dWeb is a physics modeling engine. It allows a developer to create a world with physics properties and add objects to that world that react to the properties of that world and to each other. However, the world is not displayed (not formally anyway, as you’ll see in a bit). The job of the Canvas developer when using Box2dWeb is to define a physics model and then apply it to the Canvas.

Before we get started, here are some definitions in Box2dWeb related to the examples we are going to cover. (The World modeled with Box2D is more complicated than just this, but these are the things we will cover in the examples.)

Shape

A geometrical object that exists 2D space. These are circles, squares, rectangles, and so on.

Fixture

A logical object that binds a shape to body and give it properties like density, friction, and restitution.

Rigid Body

A physical manifestation of an object in the 2D world, with a fixture and a shape applied.

World

A 2D physics world that contains bodies that react to one another

In the examples that follow, we will show how these things relate to one another in Box2D.

### Box2D Hello World

For our first example, we will create a box that contains balls that fall and bounce on the screen. See Figure 5-24 to see an example.

### Including the Library

The first thing we need to do is include the Box2dWeb library in JavaScript.

<script type="text/javascript" src="Box2dWeb-2.1.a.3.js"></script>

### Creating a Box2dWeb World

Next we add the code to initialize the world. The variables created in the following code are shortcuts to the objects in Box2dWeb. They have shorter names make it much easier to define new objects in code. Not all the objects in Box2dWeb are represented here, so if you need a different one (such as a joint with b2JointDef), you will need to define a new shortcut (or just use the full object path name).

var    b2Vec2 = Box2D.Common.Math.b2Vec2
,   b2BodyDef = Box2D.Dynamics.b2BodyDef
,   b2Body = Box2D.Dynamics.b2Body
,   b2FixtureDef = Box2D.Dynamics.b2FixtureDef
,   b2World = Box2D.Dynamics.b2World
,   b2PolygonShape = Box2D.Collision.Shapes.b2PolygonShape
,   b2CircleShape = Box2D.Collision.Shapes.b2CircleShape
,   b2DebugDraw = Box2D.Dynamics.b2DebugDraw;

Now you create your world object. This will define your physics world. b2Vec() is a Box2D object that accepts two parameters: x-axis gravity and y-axis gravity. The second parameter is doSleep, which improves performance by not simulating inactive bodies if set to true.

var world = new b2World(new b2Vec2(0,10),  true);

### Units in Box2dWeb

The first Box2D objects we will create are the four walls that define the area that holds our balls (a 500×400 Canvas). These walls are similar to the boundaries we defined in code for the earlier bouncing balls demos. We will define the walls as dynamic objects in an array, each with four properties:

{x:, x position, y: y position, w:width, h: height }
var wallDefs = new Array(
{x:8.3,y:.03,w:8.3 ,h:.03},          //top wall
{x:8.3,y:13.33,w:8.3 ,h:.03},        //bottom wall
{x:0,y:6.67,w:.03 ,h:6.67},          //left wall
{x:16.7,y:6.67,w:.03 ,h:6.67} );     //right wall

Notice that the values defined above do not look like anything we have used before. The values are in MTS units. As we stated earlier, MTS units refer to “meters-tonne-second” and are used represent large objects and spaces. However, because we draw everything in pixels on the Canvas, we need a way to think of MTS units in terms of the Canvas and vice versa.

To get these values, we need to choose a “scale” value to scale the Canvas pixels to MTS units. For this example (and all the examples in the rest of this chapter), we have chosen the value 30 as the scale value to translate pixels to MTS units.

At the same time, objects displayed in Box2D have their origin at the center (not the upper-left corner), so we need to compensate for that as well. Figure 5-25 shows how the units translate and the relative origins of the walls.

To get the sizes of the walls (width and height) we need to divide all the relative Canvas pixel values by 30. To get the location, we need to do the same but also make sure that we provide origins in the center, not the upper-left side of the object.

To top this off, the width and height passed to the Box2D setAsBox() method (width and height) are given in ½ width and ½ height. (We will discuss setAsBox()a little later in this chapter.)

So, for the top wall that we want to extend all the way across the Canvas with a height of 1 pixel, the code would be as follows:

{x:250/30, y:1/30, w:500/2/30, h:1/30}

Or, alternatively:

   {x:8.3,y:.03,w:8.33 ,h:.03},       //top wall

The rest of the wall values use the same type of calculations to convert pixel values to MTS units for Box2D. Now let’s use those units to make something.

What is interesting about this scale value is that when you use it uniformly (to convert to MTS units from pixels and from pixels to MTS units), the value can be anything. It just needs to be consistent. However, the value does have an effect on your physics world. The size of the value models the world in a different way. The smaller the scale value, the bigger the objects are in your world and vice versa. You will need to manipulate this scale value to tweak the physics for the world you are simulating.

### Defining the Walls in Box2D

We now have our walls defined with locations and sizes based on MTS units. We can start defining the walls based on Box2D objects. We start by creating an array to hold our walls, and then we loop through the wallDefs array to create the four walls that bound the screen.

   var walls = new Array();
for (var i = 0; i <wallDefs.length; i++) {

Next we start to define a wall by creating an instance b2BodyDef. A b2BodyDef object will hold the definitions we need to define a rigid body. Recall that a rigid body will have a shape and fixture applied to create a Box2D object that we can manipulate. We set the type to be b2_staticBody, which means that this object will never move and has infinite mass: perfect for the walls that bound our Canvas. We then set the position of wallDef to the position for this wall as set in the array of dynamic objects. Finally, we call world.createBody(wallDef) to create a rigid body in Box2D, based on the definitions set in the b2BodyDef object:

         var wallDef = new b2BodyDef;
wallDef.type = b2Body.b2_staticBody;
wallDef.position.Set(wallDefs[i].x, wallDefs[i].y);
var newWall = world.CreateBody(wallDef)

Now it is time to create the fixture definition for the wall. Recall that a fixture binds a shape to the rigid body, and it contains properties for our Box2D object. First, we create a new b2FixtureDef, and then we set the density (mass per unit volume), friction (resistance, usually between 0 and 1), and the restitution (elasticity, usually between 0 and 1):

         var wallFixture = new b2FixtureDef;
wallFixture.density = 10.0;
wallFixture.friction = 0.5;
wallFixture.restitution = 1;

Now that we have the fixture, we need to create the shape. We set the shape property of the fixture as b2PolygonShape, and then we call the shape’s setAsBox() method (pass the width and height of the wall) to finish defining the shape. Next we close the loop by calling the createFixture() method of our rigid body, passing wallFixture as the parameter. This sets the fixture and shape to the rigid body. Finally, we add the rigid body to our walls array.

      wallFixture.shape = new b2PolygonShape;
wallFixture.shape.SetAsBox(wallDefs[i].w, wallDefs[i].h);
newWall.CreateFixture(wallFixture);
walls.push(newWall);
}

### Creating Balls

Creating the balls that will fall and bounce around in our demo is very similar to creating walls in Box2D. For this exercise, we will create 50 balls with random locations and sizes. The locations and sizes are (again) in MTS units. The only real difference from creating the walls is that we set the fixture shape property to b2CircleShape(size), where size is a random size in MTS units.

var numBalls = 50;
var balls = new Array();
for (var i=0; i < numBalls; i++) {
var ballDef = new b2BodyDef;
ballDef.type = b2Body.b2_dynamicBody;
var ypos = (Math.random() * 8)+ 1;
var xpos = (Math.random() * 14)+ 1;
var size = (Math.random() * .4)+ 0.2;
ballDef.position.Set(xpos, ypos);
var ballFixture = new b2FixtureDef;
ballFixture.density = 10.0;
ballFixture.friction = 0.5;
ballFixture.restitution = 1;
ballFixture.shape =  new b2CircleShape(size);
var newBall = world.CreateBody(ballDef)
newBall.CreateFixture(ballFixture);
balls.push(newBall);
}

### Rendering b2debugDraw vs. Canvas Rendering

The b2debugDraw functionality of Box2D is just a way to test your physics world and see it working in a web browser. It is not an implementation of the physics for your application. We will use debugDraw to illustrate the objects we have created so that we can see them in action. In example CH5EX22.html, we will show you how to apply Box2D to the Canvas. For now, we just want to see the physics model we have created.

The following code is fairly boilerplate for getting b2debugDraw to work. The SetSprite() method takes the Canvas context as a parameter. This means that the Canvas will be completely overwritten by the output from b2debugDraw. This is why it’s just for testing. SetScaleFactor() takes the value we used to convert from pixels to MTS units (30). SetFillAlpha() sets the transparency of the lines of the objects when displayed, and likewise, SetLineThickness() sets the thickness of those lines. The SetFlags() method accepts a single bit-wise parameter of options for display: e_shapeBit draws the shapes, and e_jointBit draws joints (but because we have not created any, you will not see them):

var debugDraw = new b2DebugDraw();
debugDraw.SetSprite (context2);
debugDraw.SetDrawScale(30);
debugDraw.SetFillAlpha(0.3);
debugDraw.SetLineThickness(1.0);
debugDraw.SetFlags(b2DebugDraw.e_shapeBit | b2DebugDraw.e_jointBit);
world.SetDebugDraw(debugDraw);

### drawScreen()

Finally, we are ready to draw our Box2D physics models to the HTML5 Canvas. To make that work, we replace all of the code we have previously created in our drawScreen() function with following three lines:

world.Step(1 / 60, 10, 10);
world.DrawDebugData();
world.ClearForces();

world.Step() takes three parameters: time step, velocity iterations, and position iterations. The time step is how much time in the simulation to simulate on every call. For our application, we are simulating 1/60 of a second. The other two parameters set the precision of the iterations and should be left alone for now. world.DrawDebugData() draws the b2DebugDraw to the Canvas. world.clearForces() is called after every step to reset the physics model for the next step.

Example 5-20 provides the full code listing for CH1EX20.html. When you test this example, you will see 50 randomly created balls fall down and bounce off the bottom of the canvas. Some will bounce around for a long time, others will stop bouncing much sooner. Notice that balls appear to act the way you would expect balls to act. However, if you look back at the code we wrote, we did not create any functions for hit detection, angle of reflection, or linear movement. All of that was handled by Box2D.

Example 5-20. Box2dWeb balls demo
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX20:  Box2dWeb Balls Demo</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript" src="Box2dWeb-2.1.a.3.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);

function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();
}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}
function  drawScreen () {

world.Step(1 / 60, 10, 10);
world.DrawDebugData();
world.ClearForces();
}
theCanvas = document.getElementById('canvasOne');
context = theCanvas.getContext('2d');
var    b2Vec2 = Box2D.Common.Math.b2Vec2
,   b2BodyDef = Box2D.Dynamics.b2BodyDef
,   b2Body = Box2D.Dynamics.b2Body
,   b2FixtureDef = Box2D.Dynamics.b2FixtureDef
,   b2World = Box2D.Dynamics.b2World
,   b2PolygonShape = Box2D.Collision.Shapes.b2PolygonShape
,   b2CircleShape = Box2D.Collision.Shapes.b2CircleShape
,   b2DebugDraw = Box2D.Dynamics.b2DebugDraw;
var world = new b2World(new b2Vec2(0,10),  true);
var numBalls = 50;
var balls = new Array();
for (var i=0; i < numBalls; i++) {
var ballDef = new b2BodyDef;
ballDef.type = b2Body.b2_dynamicBody;
var ypos = (Math.random() * 8)+1;
var xpos = (Math.random() * 14)+1;
var size = (Math.random() * .4)+.2;
ballDef.position.Set(xpos, ypos);
var ballFixture = new b2FixtureDef;
ballFixture.density = 10.0;
ballFixture.friction = 0.5;
ballFixture.restitution = 1;
ballFixture.shape =  new b2CircleShape(size);
var newBall = world.CreateBody(ballDef)
newBall.CreateFixture(ballFixture);
balls.push(newBall);
}
var wallDefs = new Array({x:8.3,y:.03,w:8.3 ,h:.03}, //top
{x:8.3,y:13.33,w:8.3 ,h:.03},   //bottom
{x:0,y:6.67,w:.03 ,h:6.67},      //left
{x:16.7,y:6.67,w:.03 ,h:6.67} );     //right
var walls = new Array();
for (var i = 0; i <wallDefs.length; i++) {
var wallDef = new b2BodyDef;
wallDef.type = b2Body.b2_staticBody;
wallDef.position.Set(wallDefs[i].x, wallDefs[i].y);
var newWall = world.CreateBody(wallDef)
var wallFixture = new b2FixtureDef;
wallFixture.density = 10.0;
wallFixture.friction = 0.5;
wallFixture.restitution = 1;
wallFixture.shape = new b2PolygonShape;
wallFixture.shape.SetAsBox(wallDefs[i].w, wallDefs[i].h);
newWall.CreateFixture(wallFixture);
walls.push(newWall);
}
var debugDraw = new b2DebugDraw();
debugDraw.SetSprite (context);
debugDraw.SetDrawScale(30);     //define scale
debugDraw.SetFillAlpha(0.3);    //define transparency
debugDraw.SetLineThickness(1.0);
debugDraw.SetFlags(b2DebugDraw.e_shapeBit | b2DebugDraw.e_jointBit);
world.SetDebugDraw(debugDraw);
function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}
gameLoop();
}
</script>
</head>
<body>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px;">
<canvas id="canvasOne" width="500" height="400">
Your browser does not support the HTML 5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</div>
</body>
</html>

### Bouncing Balls Revisited

Do you recall from CH5EX7.html how we created bouncing balls that bounce off one another? We are going to iterate the last example with just a few simple changes to create a world that acts a lot like that example.

First, we will change the gravity in the world definition so that there is no y-axis gravity at all. Instead of looking at balls from the side, we are looking at balls from the top (like it’s a flat 2D world and we are looking down). We will also set our demo to have 50 balls instead of 30.

var world = new b2World(new b2Vec2(0,0),  true);
var numBalls = 50;

Because there is no gravity in this world, we need some way for the balls to move when the demo starts. To do this, we will add a random x and y velocity to each ball and then pass those as parameters of a new b2Vec2() object with a call to the ball’s SetLinearVelocity() method.

var xVelocity = Math.floor(Math.random() * 10) −5;
var yVelocity = Math.floor(Math.random() * 10) −5;
newBall.SetLinearVelocity(new b2Vec2(xVelocity,yVelocity))

That’s all we need to do to change our falling balls demo into something similar to the bouncing balls demo from earlier in the chapter.

You can test this example by opening CH5EX21.html in the code distribution. The results will look something like what you see in Figure 5-26.

As you can see, getting up to speed with Box2D might take a bit of time, but when you get the hang of it, you can make some dramatic changes with very little code.

### Translating to the Canvas

So far, we have looked only at Box2D output with b2DebigDraw. While this looks neat, it’s not really useful for Canvas applications. As we stated earlier, Box2D is just a “physics model.” It is your job to apply that model to the HTML5 Canvas. In this next example, we will take the bouncing balls from the last example and show them running side-by-wide with the Canvas. (See Figure 5-27.)

The first thing we need to do is to define a second Canvas in our HTML to show the b2DebugDraw output:

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="450" height="350">
Your browser does not support the HTML 5 Canvas.
</canvas>
<canvas id="canvasTwo" width="450" height="350">
Your browser does not support the HTML 5 Canvas.
</canvas>

Notice that the Canvas is now smaller (450×350). We changed the size so that we could easily fit two Canvases side by side in the web browser. We also need to make sure to get a reference to both in our JavaScript code:

var theCanvas = document.getElementById('canvasOne');
var context = theCanvas.getContext('2d');

var theCanvasTwo = document.getElementById('canvasTwo');
var context2 = theCanvasTwo.getContext('2d');

Now that we have that out of the way, let’s start by making our lives a lot easier. Instead of using a literal for our scale factor, we will create a variable named scaleFactor that we can use for scale conversions:

var scaleFactor = 30;

We can use scaleFactor when finding positions and sizes for our objects in Box2D. First, in the loop where we created the balls to display, we now use the entire canvas width and height, modified by the scaleFactor to randomly position the balls:

   var ypos = (Math.random() * theCanvas.height)/scaleFactor;
var xpos = (Math.random() * theCanvas.width/scaleFactor);
var size = ((Math.random() * 20)+ 5)/scaleFactor;

We also now define the wallDefs using the width and height of the Canvas instead of the MTS values we used in the previous examples. This is essentially the same, but it makes it much easier to adjust the size of the Canvas now that we are not using literals. Because our Canvas is now smaller, it helps that we don’t have to recalculate all the values:

var wallDefs = new Array (
{x:theCanvas.width,y:0,w:theCanvas.width ,h:1},                      //top
{x:theCanvas.width,y:theCanvas.height,w:theCanvas.width ,h:1},       //bottom
{x:0,y:theCanvas.height,w:1 ,h:theCanvas.height},                    //left
{x:theCanvas.width,y:theCanvas.height,w:1 ,h:theCanvas.height} );     //right

In the loop where we define the walls, we now use scaleFactor to convert the pixels values in our array to MTS values for positions and sizes of the walls:

wallDef.position.Set(wallDefs[i].x/scaleFactor, wallDefs[i].y/scaleFactor);
...
wallFixture.shape.SetAsBox(wallDefs[i].w/scaleFactor, wallDefs[i].h/scaleFactor);

When we define our instance of b2DebugDraw, we pass a reference to the second Canvas (context2) so that the debug output will display there, and we can draw on the first Canvas with the Canvas drawing API:

debugDraw.SetSprite (context2);
debugDraw.SetDrawScale(scaleFactor);     //define scale

The big changes for this example arrive in drawScreen(). The calls to the methods of the world object are the same as in the last example (even though world.DrawDebugData() is now using context2):

function  drawScreen () {

world.Step(1 / 60, 10, 10);
world.DrawDebugData();
world.ClearForces();

Now we are going to translate the Box2D data in our model to the Canvas. Most of this drawScreen() function should look familiar, because it is not much different than some of the earlier bouncing ball demos. First we clear the Canvas, and then we look through the balls array to display each ball:

context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);
for (i =0;i <balls.length;i++) {

The first big difference is how we get the position and size of the ball we are going to draw. The items we have in our balls array are instances of the Box2D b2Body object. We use that object’s GetPosition() method to find the current x and y coordinates of the ball. We then call the GetFixtureList() method of b2Body. This will give us the b2Fixture we created for the ball. Recall that for each fixture we set a shape property. We need to get that shape property by calling fixtureList.GetShape():

              var position = balls[i].GetPosition();
var fixtureList = balls[i].GetFixtureList();
var shape = fixtureList.GetShape();

With all the information we need, we can now draw the ball on the Canvas. Using the context.arc() method, we set the x and y position multiplied by the scaleFactor (because we are now converting from MTS units to pixels). We call shape.GetRadius() for the size of the circle and use the same conversion with scaleFactor:

              context.fillStyle = "#000000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(position.x * scaleFactor  , position.y *
scaleFactor ,shape.GetRadius() *scaleFactor ,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

}

When you run the example (CH5EX22.html), you will see something similar to what is in Figure 5-27 The Canvas on the left displays balls using the Canvas drawing objects and looks very similar to the demo we created in CH5EX8.html. The Canvas on the right shows the b2DebugDraw output from Box2D. We have now successfully applied a Box2D physics model to the HTML5 Canvas.

Again, notice that, besides getting familiar with the object model of Box2D, this example is very simple. We did not have to build any movement or collisions detection routines ourselves. Box2D takes care of all that stuff on its own. We just need to define a Box2D world and then put objects inside of it.

## Interactivity with Box2D

So far, we have simply placed objects in a defined Box2D world and let them move on their own. While that type of application is great for teaching or instruction, creating an interactive world with Box2D is a path to creating exciting games and simulations on the Canvas.

For this example, we will create a game where you shoot balls at a pile of boxes and knock them over. However, before we get to that example, we will start with a simpler iteration where we display some boxes and model them falling and rotating. (See Figure 5-28.)

### Creating the Boxes

The world we are going to simulate is essentially the same as in the last example, with a positive y-axis gravitation force of 10 and a scaleFactor of 30.

var world = new b2World(new b2Vec2(0,10),  true);
var scaleFactor = 30;

In this world, we will create a set of eight 25×25 pixel boxes that are piled on top of each other, 100 pixels from the right side of the Canvas, and starting 100 pixels from the bottom so that they will fall to the ground when the demo starts:

var numBoxes = 8;
var boxes = new Array();
var boxHeight = 25;
var boxWidth  = 25;
var startX = (theCanvas.width-100);
var startY = (theCanvas.height-boxHeight)-100

When we loop through, creating the boxes, we perform essentially the same operations as when we create walls. We use the scaleFactor to convert to MTS units, but instead of defining a b2_staticBody, we define the box as a b2_dynamicBody, which means it can move and be affected by the physics-driven models in Box2D.

One other thing we do here is offset each box to the right by (i*2) pixels. We do this so that each successive box will fall a tiny bit to the right of the box under it. This will make the stack unstable so that the boxes fall over when they hit the ground. We want to do this so that we can illustrate rotating the boxes on the Canvas:

for (var i=0; i < numBoxes; i++) {
var boxDef = new b2BodyDef;
boxDef.type = b2Body.b2_dynamicBody;
var ypos = (startY-(i*boxHeight))/scaleFactor;
var xpos = (startX+(i*2))/scaleFactor;
boxDef.position.Set(xpos, ypos);
var newBox = world.CreateBody(boxDef)
var boxFixture = new b2FixtureDef;
boxFixture.density = 10.0;
boxFixture.friction = 0.5;
boxFixture.restitution = 1;
boxFixture.shape = new b2PolygonShape;
boxFixture.shape.SetAsBox((boxWidth/scaleFactor)/2, (boxHeight/scaleFactor)/2);
newBox.CreateFixture(boxFixture);

The one addition we will add to the boxes that we did not have for the walls is using the SetUserData() method of the b2Body object. This allows us to create a dynamic object that holds any type of data we might need and attach it to the body. For our purposes, we will attach an object that holds the width and height of the boxes (in MTS units) so that we can easily model them on the Canvas in our drawScreen() function.

   newBox.SetUserData({width:boxWidth/scaleFactor, height:boxHeight/scaleFactor})
boxes.push(newBox);
}

### Rendering the Boxes

To render the boxes, we loop through the boxes array in drawScreen() in a similar manner to how we looped through the balls in CH5EX22.html. We retrieve the position and shape using GetPosition() and GetShape(), preparing to render the boxes:

for (i =0;i <boxes.length;i++) {
var position = boxes[i].GetPosition();
var fixtureList = boxes[i].GetFixtureList();
var shape = fixtureList.GetShape();

However, because these are boxes that fall and rotate, we need to perform some significantly different operations to render the boxes correctly. First we retrieve the object we saved in the user data attached to the body by calling GetUserData():

   var userData = boxes[i].GetUserData();

Next we save the Canvas context, reset the transformation matrix, and translate to the center of the box. Because the origin of the objects in Box2D is set to the center, we don’t have to offset to the center for our transformation. Next we rotate the Canvas to the angle of the box. We find the angle with a call to GetAngle():

    context.save();
context.setTransform(1,0,0,1,0,0);
context.translate(position.x * scaleFactor,position.y * scaleFactor);
context.rotate(boxes[i].GetAngle());

To draw the box, we need to offset the x and y from the position back to ½ width and height because we draw on the Canvas with an origin at the upper-left corner. Then we restore the context, and we are done with the box:

context.fillRect(0-(userData.width*scaleFactor/2), 0-
(userData.height*scaleFactor/2),
userData.width * scaleFactor, userData.height * scaleFactor);
context.restore();
}

We have now modeled boxes falling and reacting to gravity and collisions with other boxes in Box2D. You can view this example by looking at CH5EX23.html in the code distribution.

The final example in our foray into Box2D will add interactivity to the Canvas so that we can shoot balls that knock over the pile of boxes we created in the last example. Figure 5-29 shows what the example looks like when executed in a web browser.

### Creating Boxes

There are a few changes we need to make for this example from CH5EX23.html when we create the boxes. In the loop, we set the x position for the boxes to be right on top of each other, instead of offset to the right. We no longer need the boxes to fall over on their own; the balls we shoot at the boxes will do that for us!

We also set the density of the boxes to 20 so that they are harder to knock over, and we reduce the restitution to .1 so that they don’t bounce around as much as they did in the last example:

var xpos = (startX)/scaleFactor;
boxFixture.density = 20.0;
...
boxFixture.restitution = .1;

Also, when we create the walls, we set the wall restitution to .5, which means objects will be less apt to bounce around on top of them:

wallFixture.restitution = .5;

### Handling the Balls

For this example, we want to listen for a mouse click on the Canvas. When the user clicks, we want to create a ball that flies across the Canvas towards the piles of boxes. The first thing we need to do is create an event listener for the mouseup event:

theCanvas.addEventListener("mouseup",createBall, false);

Next we need to create the createBall() function. First, we get the x and y position of the mouse from the event object passed to createBall(). Then we use some cross-browser code to figure out the mouse position relative to the Canvas. The following boilerplate code captured (at the time of this writing) the proper x and y mouse position on the Canvas:

function createBall(event) {
var x;
var y;
if (event.pageX || event.pageY) {
x = event.pageX;
y = event.pageY;
}
else {
x = e.clientX + document.body.scrollLeft +
document.documentElement.scrollLeft;
y = e.clientY + document.body.scrollTop +
document.documentElement.scrollTop;
}
x -= theCanvas.offsetLeft;
y -= theCanvas.offsetTop;

mouseX=x;
mouseY=y;

Because we are capturing the mouse x and y position relative to the Canvas, you need to make sure that the <canvas> element in the HTML page is styled with top and left values so that the offsetLeft and offsetTop values are correct. For example, if you position the Canvas inside a <div> at 50,50 and leave the left and top style values at 0, the mouse clicks will not be captured in the correct locations:

<canvas id="canvasOne" width="450" height="350"
style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px;">
Your browser does not support the HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>
<canvas id="canvasTwo" width="450" height="350"
style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 451px;">
Your browser does not support the HTML5 Canvas.
</canvas>

Next, we create a rigid body definition object, setting the x and y position in the b2BodyDef to the location of the mouse click, and we set the size of the ball radius to 7 pixels, which we will use a few lines down:

    var ballDef = new b2BodyDef;
ballDef.type = b2Body.b2_dynamicBody;
var ypos = mouseY/scaleFactor;
var xpos = mouseX/scaleFactor;
var size = 7/scaleFactor;
ballDef.position.Set(xpos, ypos);

Next we create the fixture, setting the density of the ball to 30 (harder than the boxes), friction to .6 (only because it makes the simulation feel better when running), and set the restitution to .2, which is more than both the boxes and the walls because we want to balls to bounce a bit higher than the boxes when they hit another object:

    var ballFixture = new b2FixtureDef;
ballFixture.density = 30.0;
ballFixture.friction = 0.6;
ballFixture.restitution = .2;
ballFixture.shape =  new b2CircleShape(size);
var newBall = world.CreateBody(ballDef)
newBall.CreateFixture(ballFixture);

Then, we set the linear velocity of the balls to positive 15 on the x axis, which will have them start moving across the Canvas to the right when they are created:

    var xVelocity = 15;
var yVelocity = 0;
newBall.SetLinearVelocity(new b2Vec2(xVelocity,yVelocity))
balls.push(newBall);
}

Finally, we need to render the balls in drawScreen(). Except for the fact that we color the balls red, the rendering we do here is essentially the same as we did in the bouncing balls demo in CH5EX22:

for (i =0;i <balls.length;i++) {
var position = balls[i].GetPosition();
var fixtureList = balls[i].GetFixtureList();
var shape = fixtureList.GetShape();
context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(position.x * scaleFactor  , position.y * scaleFactor ,
shape.GetRadius()
*scaleFactor ,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
}

Those are all the changes we need to make to convert the stacked boxes example (CH5EX23.html) into an interactive experience when the user shoots balls to knock down boxes. Load CH5EX24.html from the code distribution into your web browser, and check it out! The full code listing is provided in Example 5-21.

Example 5-21. Box2dWeb box battle
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>CH5EX24:  Box2dWeb Box Battle</title>
<script src="modernizr.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript" src="Box2dWeb-2.1.a.3.js"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
window.addEventListener('load', eventWindowLoaded, false);

function eventWindowLoaded() {
canvasApp();
}

function canvasSupport () {
return Modernizr.canvas;
}

function canvasApp() {

if (!canvasSupport()) {
return;
}

function  drawScreen () {

world.Step(1 / 60, 10, 10);
world.DrawDebugData();
world.ClearForces();

context.strokeStyle = '#000000';
context.fillStyle = '#EEEEEE';
context.fillRect(0, 0, theCanvas.width, theCanvas.height);
//Box
context.fillStyle = '#000000';
context.strokeRect(1,  1, theCanvas.width-2, theCanvas.height-2);
for (i =0;i <boxes.length;i++) {
var position = boxes[i].GetPosition();
var fixtureList = boxes[i].GetFixtureList();
var shape = fixtureList.GetShape();
var userData = boxes[i].GetUserData();
context.save();
context.setTransform(1,0,0,1,0,0);
context.translate(position.x * scaleFactor,position.y *
scaleFactor);
context.rotate(boxes[i].GetAngle());
context.fillRect(0-(userData.width*scaleFactor/2)  ,
0-(userData.height*scaleFactor/2), userData.width * scaleFactor,
userData.height
* scaleFactor);
context.restore();
}

for (i =0;i <balls.length;i++) {
var position = balls[i].GetPosition();
var fixtureList = balls[i].GetFixtureList();
var shape = fixtureList.GetShape();
context.fillStyle = "#FF0000";
context.beginPath();
context.arc(position.x * scaleFactor  , position.y * scaleFactor ,
shape.GetRadius()
*scaleFactor ,0,Math.PI*2,true);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
}

}

function createBall(event) {
var x;
var y;
if (event.pageX || event.pageY) {
x = event.pageX;
y = event.pageY;
}
else {
x = e.clientX + document.body.scrollLeft +
document.documentElement.scrollLeft;
y = e.clientY + document.body.scrollTop +
document.documentElement.scrollTop;
}
x -= theCanvas.offsetLeft;
y -= theCanvas.offsetTop;

mouseX=x;
mouseY=y;
var ballDef = new b2BodyDef;
ballDef.type = b2Body.b2_dynamicBody;
var ypos = mouseY/scaleFactor;
var xpos = mouseX/scaleFactor;
var size = 7/scaleFactor;
ballDef.position.Set(xpos, ypos);
var ballFixture = new b2FixtureDef;
ballFixture.density = 30.0;
ballFixture.friction = 0.6;
ballFixture.restitution = .2;
ballFixture.shape =  new b2CircleShape(size);
var newBall = world.CreateBody(ballDef)
newBall.CreateFixture(ballFixture);
var xVelocity = 15;
var yVelocity = 0;
newBall.SetLinearVelocity(new b2Vec2(xVelocity,yVelocity))
balls.push(newBall);

}

var theCanvas = document.getElementById('canvasOne');
var context = theCanvas.getContext('2d');

var theCanvasTwo = document.getElementById('canvasTwo');
var context2 = theCanvasTwo.getContext('2d');

theCanvas.addEventListener("mouseup",createBall, false);

var scaleFactor = 30;
var    b2Vec2 = Box2D.Common.Math.b2Vec2
,   b2BodyDef = Box2D.Dynamics.b2BodyDef
,   b2Body = Box2D.Dynamics.b2Body
,   b2FixtureDef = Box2D.Dynamics.b2FixtureDef
,   b2World = Box2D.Dynamics.b2World
,   b2PolygonShape = Box2D.Collision.Shapes.b2PolygonShape
,    b2CircleShape = Box2D.Collision.Shapes.b2CircleShape
,   b2DebugDraw = Box2D.Dynamics.b2DebugDraw;

var world = new b2World(new b2Vec2(0,20),  true);
var numBoxes = 8;
var boxes = new Array();
var balls = new Array();
var boxHeight = 25;
var boxWidth  = 25;
var startX = (theCanvas.width-100);
var startY = (theCanvas.height-boxHeight)-100
for (var i=0; i < numBoxes; i++) {
var boxDef = new b2BodyDef;
boxDef.type = b2Body.b2_dynamicBody;
var ypos = (startY-(i*boxHeight))/scaleFactor;
var xpos = (startX)/scaleFactor;
boxDef.position.Set(xpos, ypos);
var newBox = world.CreateBody(boxDef)
var boxFixture = new b2FixtureDef;
boxFixture.density = 20.0;
boxFixture.friction = .5;
boxFixture.restitution = .1;
boxFixture.shape = new b2PolygonShape;
boxFixture.shape.SetAsBox((boxWidth/scaleFactor)/2,
(boxHeight/scaleFactor)/2);
newBox.CreateFixture(boxFixture);
newBox.SetUserData({width:boxWidth/scaleFactor,
height:boxHeight/scaleFactor})
boxes.push(newBox);
}

var wallDefs = new Array(
{x:theCanvas.width,y:0,w:theCanvas.width ,h:1},//top
{x:theCanvas.width,y:theCanvas.height,w:theCanvas.width ,h:1},//bottom
{x:0,y:theCanvas.height,w:1 ,h:theCanvas.height},             //left
{x:theCanvas.width,y:theCanvas.height,w:1 ,h:theCanvas.height} );  //right
var walls = new Array();
for (var i = 0; i <wallDefs.length; i++) {
var wallDef = new b2BodyDef;
wallDef.type = b2Body.b2_staticBody;
wallDef.position.Set(wallDefs[i].x/scaleFactor, wallDefs[i].y/scaleFactor);
var newWall = world.CreateBody(wallDef)
var wallFixture = new b2FixtureDef;
wallFixture.density = 10.0;
wallFixture.friction = 0.5;
wallFixture.restitution = .5;
wallFixture.shape = new b2PolygonShape;
wallFixture.shape.SetAsBox(wallDefs[i].w/scaleFactor,
wallDefs[i].h/scaleFactor);
newWall.CreateFixture(wallFixture);
walls.push(newWall);
}

var debugDraw = new b2DebugDraw();
debugDraw.SetSprite (context2);
debugDraw.SetDrawScale(scaleFactor);     //define scale
debugDraw.SetFillAlpha(0.3);    //define transparency
debugDraw.SetLineThickness(1.0);
debugDraw.SetFlags(b2DebugDraw.e_shapeBit | b2DebugDraw.e_jointBit);
world.SetDebugDraw(debugDraw);

function gameLoop() {
window.setTimeout(gameLoop, 20);
drawScreen()
}

gameLoop();

}

</script>
</head>
<body>
<canvas id="canvasOne" width="450" height="350" style="position: absolute;
     top: 0px; left: 0px;">
Your browser does not support the HTML 5 Canvas.
</canvas>
<canvas id="canvasTwo" width="450" height="350" style="position: absolute;
     top: 0px; left: 451px;">
Your browser does not support the HTML 5 Canvas.
</canvas>
</body>
</html>